United States Navy Lieutenant Stephen Decatur and his men from USS Enterprise attacking the Barbary pirate ketch Mistico on December 23, 1803. Painting by Dennis Malone Carter (1827â81).
âAFTER ME, THE DELUGE,â the saying attributed to Louis XV (1710â74), would have been better said by his son and heir Louis XVI, who was soon thereafter overthrown by the French Revolution that began in 1789.[1] Muammar Qaddafi has said something similar, that if he is overthrown Libya will be condemned to chaos. Qaddafi even claims to be fighting off âal-Qaeda.â Perhaps he is.
On the one hand, this is all clearly self-serving on Qaddafiâs part. On the other hand, the kernel of truth in such a statement, specifically with regard to Libya, might bear scrutiny.
The U.S. administration that attacked Libya before Obama was that of Ronald Reagan. Reaganâs foreign policy advisor and United Nations ambassador, Jeane Kirkpatrick, famously distinguished between âauthoritarianâ and âtotalitarianâ dictatorships, and thought that the U.S. should support the former and oppose the latter because of the relative ease with which the former could transition to democracy as opposed to the latter, whose pathology ran deeper, and so the effects would prove more lasting obstacles to freedom.
The comparison of Libya to its neighbor Egypt in the recent uprising against Mubarak seems to prove Kirkpatrickâs point. Egypt seems poised on a relatively painless transition to democracy, while Libya portends a much darker future, with or without Qaddafi. One might also, for good measure, point out the more intractably âtotalitarianâ tyranny of the political regime in the Islamic Republic of Iran, whose potential democratic replacement is also highly uncertain, not least because its Islamic Revolution in 1979 was âdemocraticâ in ways that the origins of the Egyptian or Libyan regimes were not.
Back in the 1980s, another famous dictator who was toppled, Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines, warned that if his âNew Societyâ was overthrown it would mean only the return of the traditional oligarchy of wealthy families, to the detriment of the people. While the Philippines today is certainly more politically democratic, and in this sense âfree,â than under Marcos, his prediction has come spectacularly true. The Philippines today is ruled by its traditional wealthy families, unimpeded, rather than by the upstart cronies cultivated under Marcos, himself a parvenu intolerable to the old Filipino elite. Furthermore, the rate of growth and development in the Philippines has stagnated, and is today much lower than it had been under Marcos. The wealth gap is much greater and poverty levels much worse at the bottom, and more endemically pervasive in the Philippines today than before. The Philippines remains, and will remain, just as swamped, in some ways worse than it was under Marcos.
Many of the former republics of the USSR after the collapse of Stalinism are as well.
But what is the point of saying so?
The potential further development of Libya after the passing of Qaddafi suggests something darker than what happened after âPeopleâs Powerâ in the Philippines, in terms of violence and other forms of overt brutality â as opposed to the âsofterâ brutality that continues to prevail in the Philippines, as elsewhere. Libya may become more like Somalia. Or Yemen. Or Afghanistan or Iraq. Who knows?
If Qaddafi thought that the tsunami that hit Japan would distract the U.S. from attacking his regime and allow suppression of the rebellion in Libya, he was mistaken. Rather, Qaddafi underestimated the global deluge of capital, at whose leading edge the U.S., for better or worse, operates. The flood was not to spare Qaddafi. It always stands poised to crash, cresting menacingly somewhere off shore. The rebels in Libya may have wished it to rain down on Qaddafi like a Biblical plague on the Pharaoh, tearing down the pride of his sinful glory. It will. But it may not spare them, either. There is little if any justice to history. Especially to a place like Libya, history happens.
Protest against the U.S./NATO/UN bombing of Libya is no less hopeless than Qaddafi is.
Interior of the ancient Berber city of Ghadames, Libya.
Qaddafiâs regime was, like Marcosâs in the Philippines â and the âtotalitarianâ regimes of the USSR and Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, etc. that Kirkpatrick and Reagan opposed â a âmodernizingâ project. Horrifically so. Perhaps this is what Kirkpatrick actually had in mind in her distinction between âauthoritarian,â meaning more traditional, and âtotalitarianâ dictatorships â and why the former would end up being more benign than the latter. Perhaps.
The tsunami hits Japan, March 11, 2011.
Qaddafi moved the Berbers out of their traditional community in Ghadames into new apartment buildings. The ancient city â hallucinatory in its cavernous complexes â was left intact and preserved as a cultural museum. It still stands, alluring next to the decrepit hovels the modern high-rises have become. Perhaps the Berbers will return to their ancient city, evacuated by Qaddafi. But really it is no longer there, even if it remains in Libya. The deluge has not spared it. Nor will it. The only difference is how hard the wave might hit. | §
Originally published in The Platypus Review 34 (April 2011).
[1]. See my âEgypt, or, historyâs invidious comparisons: 1979, 1789, and 1848,â Platypus Review 33 (March 2011).
Chris Cutrone
Chris Cutrone is a college educator, writer, and media artist, committed to critical thinking and artistic practice and the politics of social emancipation. ( . . . )
Presented on a panel with Paul LeBlanc and Lars T. Lih at the Left Forum 2011, PaceUniversity, New York, March 19, 2011 (audio recording); at the third annual Platypus Affiliated Society international convention, the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, April 30, 2011; and at the Marxist Literary Group summer Institute on Culture and Society, University of Illinois at Chicago, June 22, 2011.
Introduction
Leninâs Marxist politics has been profoundly misconstrued and distorted, both positively and negatively, as supposedly having wanted to strip capitalist society of its deceptive veneer and assert the unadorned proletariat as the be-all and end-all of âsocialistâ society. Certainly not merely the later Stalinist history of the Soviet Union, but also practices of the Soviet state under Lenin’s leadership in the Civil War, so-called âWar Communism,â and the Red Terror, lent themselves to a belief in Lenin as a ruthless destroyer of âbourgeoisâ conditions of life. But, then, what are we to make, for instance, of Leninâs pamphlets on The State and Revolution and âLeft-Wingâ Communism: An Infantile Disorder? For they emphasized both the necessary persistence of âbourgeois rightâ among the workers in the long transition from socialism to communism, requiring the continuation of state mediation, and the fact that Marxists had understood their effort as trying to overcome capital âon the basis of capitalismâ itself. A prime example of Lenin’s insistence on the mediation of politics in society was his opposition to Trotskyâs recommendation that labor unions be militarized and subsumed under the state. Lenin wanted to preserve, rather, the important non-identity of class, party, and state in the Soviet âworkersâ state,â which he recognized as necessarily carrying on, for the foreseeable future, âstate capitalismâ (characterized by âbureaucratic deformationsâ due to Russian conditions). Lenin thus wanted to preserve the possibility of politics within the working class, a theme that reached back to his first major pamphlet, What is to be Done? Leninâs âlast struggleâ (Moshe Lewin) was to prevent the strangling of politics in the Soviet state, a danger he regarded not merely in terms of Stalinâs leadership, but the condition of the Bolsheviks more generally. For instance, Lenin critically noted Trotskyâs predilection for âadministrativeâ solutions.
Georg LukĂĄcs, Karl Korsch and Theodor Adorno, teasing out a âHegelianâ dimension to Leninâs Marxism, derived from Lenin’s theoretical writings and political practice an elaboration of the Marxist theory of social mediation in capital, through the politics of proletarian socialism, that sought to recover Lenin from a bad utopian perspective of the desire to do away with politics altogether. Rather, such Marxist critical theory following Lenin understood overcoming the âalienationâ and âreificationâ of capital as providing the possibility for the true practice of politics, a neglected but vital contribution Lenin made to the development of Marxism. Lenin did not attempt to destroy modern forms of political mediation, but rather to achieve the true mediation of theory and practice, in politics freed from society dominated by capital. This was the content of Leninâs liberalism, his âdialecticalâ Marxist attempt, not to negate, but rather to fulfill the desiderata of bourgeois society, which capital had come to block, and which could only be worked through âimmanently.â
The controversy about Lenin
Lenin is the most controversial figure in the history of Marxism, and perhaps one of the most controversial figures in all of history. As such, he is an impossible figure for sober consideration, without polemic. Nevertheless, it has become impossible, also, after Lenin, to consider Marxism without reference to him. Broadly, Marxism is divided into avowedly âLeninistâ and âanti-Leninistâ tendencies. In what ways was Lenin either an advance or a calamity for Marxism? But there is another way of approaching Lenin, which is as an expression of the historical crisis of Marxism. In other words, Lenin as a historical figure is unavoidably significant as manifesting a crisis of Marxism. The question is how Lenin provided the basis for advancing that crisis, how the polarization around Lenin could provide the basis for advancing the potential transformation of Marxism, in terms of resolving certain problems. What is clear from the various ways that Lenin is usually approached is that the necessity for such transformation and advance of Marxism has been expressed only in distorted ways. For instance, the question of Marxist âorthodoxyâ hinders the proper evaluation of Lenin. There was a fundamental ambiguity in the way Marxism addressed its own historical crisis, in the question of fidelity to and revision of Marx, for instance in the so-called âRevisionist Disputeâ of the late 19th century. Lenin was a leading anti-revisionist or âorthodoxâ Marxist. This was also true of other Second International radical Marxists, such as Rosa Luxemburg and Leon Trotsky. In what ways did these figures, and above all Lenin, think that being true to Marx was required for the advancement and transformation of Marxism?
The Frankfurt School Critical Theorist Theodor Adorno, in his 1966 book Negative Dialectics, wrote of the degeneration of Marxism due to âdogmatization and thought-taboos.â There is no other figure in the history of Marxism who has been subject to such âdogmatization and thought-taboosâ as much as Lenin. For Adorno, figures in the history of Marxism such as Lenin or Luxemburg or Kautsky should not be approached in terms merely of their theoretical perspectives or practical actions they took or advocated, but rather in their relation of theory and practice, or, why they thought they did what they did when they did so. As Adorno put it, theory and practice have a changing relation that âfluctuatesâ historically.
Lenin, among other Marxists, thought that the political party served an important function with regard to consciousness, and wrote in What is to be Done? of the key âimportance of the theoretical struggleâ in forming such a party. Lenin thought that theory was not simply a matter of generalization from experience in terms of trial and error, as in traditional (pre-Kantian) epistemology, but, importantly, in the Hegelian âdialecticalâ sense of history: this is how Lenin understood âtheory.â As Lenin put it, history did not advance in a line but rather in âspirals,â through repetitions and regressions, and not simple linear âprogress.â In this respect, the past could be an advance on the present, or, the present could seek to attain moments of the past, but under changed conditions. And such changed conditions were themselves not to be regarded simply as âprogressive.â Rather, there was an important ambivalence to history, in that it exhibited both progress and regress. In his 1915 Granat Encyclopedia entry on Karl Marx, describing âdialecticsâ from a Marxian perspective, Lenin wrote,
In our times, the idea of development, of evolution, has almost completely penetrated social consciousness, only in other ways, and not through Hegelian philosophy. Still, this idea, as formulated by Marx and Engels on the basis of Hegelâs philosophy, is far more comprehensive and far richer in content than the current idea of evolution is. A development that repeats, as it were, stages that have already been passed, but repeats them in a different way, on a higher basis (âthe negation of the negationâ), a development, so to speak, that proceeds in spirals, not in a straight line; a development by leaps, catastrophes, and revolutions; âbreaks in continuityâ; the transformation of quantity into quality; inner impulses towards development, imparted by the contradiction and conflict of the various forces and tendencies acting on a given body, or within a given phenomenon, or within a given society; the interdependence and the closest and indissoluble connection between all aspects of any phenomenon (history constantly revealing ever new aspects), a connection that provides a uniform, and universal process of motion, one that follows definite laws â these are some of the features of dialectics as a doctrine of development that is richer than the conventional one.
With Marxism, the âcrisisâ of bourgeois society was recognized. The crisis of bourgeois society circa 1848 was what Marx called âcapital,â a provocative characterization. The spiral development through which Lenin, among other Second International radicals such as Luxemburg and Trotsky, thought that history in the modern era had regressed through the âprogressâ since Marx and Engelsâs time in 1848, the moment of the Communist Manifesto, showed how and why the subsequent development of Marxism sought to re-attain 1848. Was history since 1848 progress or regress? In a certain sense, it was both. In this history, bourgeois society appeared to both fulfill and negate itself. In other words, bourgeois society had become more itself than ever; in other respects, however, it grew distant from its earlier achievements and even undermined them. (For instance, the recrudescence of slave labor in the decades leading up to the U.S. Civil War.) The Second International radicals thus sought to return to the original potential of bourgeois society in its first moment of crisis, circa 1848. As Karl Kraus put it, in a way that registered deeply with Walter Benjamin and Adorno, âOrigin is the goal.â Even though the crisis of capital or bourgeois society grew, the question was whether the crisis advanced. The Second International radicals recognized that while the crisis of capital, in Marxâs sense, grows, the crisis must be made to advance, as history does not progress automatically. It was in this sense that there was, potentially, a return of the 1848 moment in the development of Marxism itself, which was the attempt to make the growing crisis — what Luxemburg and Lenin called âimperialism,â and what Lenin termed capitalismâs âhighest stageâ — a historical advance.
The paradox of such development and transformation of Marxism itself through the return to the past moment of potential and resultant âcrisisâ was expressed well by Karl Korsch, who wrote, in his 1923 essay on âMarxism and Philosophy,â
[The] transformation and development of Marxist theory has been effected under the peculiar ideological guise of a return to the pure teaching of original or true Marxism. Yet it is easy to understand both the reasons for this guise and the real character of the process which is concealed by it. What theoreticians like Rosa Luxemburg in Germany and Lenin in Russia have done, and are doing, in the field of Marxist theory is to liberate it from the inhibiting traditions of [Social Democracy]. They thereby answer the practical needs of the new revolutionary stage of proletarian class struggle, for these traditions weighed âlike a nightmareâ on the brain of the working masses whose objectively revolutionary socioeconomic position no longer corresponded to these [earlier] evolutionary doctrines. The apparent revival of original Marxist theory in the Third International is simply a result of the fact that in a new revolutionary period not only the workersâ movement itself, but the theoretical conceptions of communists which express it, must assume an explicitly revolutionary form. This is why large sections of the Marxist system, which seemed virtually forgotten in the final decades of the nineteenth century, have now come to life again.
So, what were these ârevolutionaryâ aspects of Marxism that were recovered in the course of the âcrisis of Marxismâ (Korschâs phrase), and how did Lenin help recover them?
Lenin: history not linear but spiral
Lenin and the political party
Lenin made a portentous but indicative remark in the first footnote to his book What is to be Done?, in which he stated that,
Incidentally, in the history of modern socialism [there] is a phenomenon . . . in its way very consoling, namely . . . the strife of the various trends within the socialist movement. . . . [In] the[se] disputes between Lassalleans and Eisenachers, between Guesdists and Possibilists, between Fabians and Social-Democrats, and between Narodnaya Volya adherents and Social-Democrats, . . . really [an] international battle with socialist opportunism, [will] international revolutionary Social-Democracy . . . perhaps become sufficiently strengthened to put an end to the political reaction that has long reigned in Europe?
In other words, could working through the issue of opportunist-reformist ârevisionismâ within Marxism be the means for overcoming capital? This would appear to be the self-centrality of Marxism taken to its fullest flower. But there was a rationale to this. Not only did Lenin (subsequent to What is to be Done?) want the Mensheviks thrown out of Russian Social Democracy (Lenin agreed with the Mensheviks on excluding the so-called âeconomisticâ tendencies of Marxism and the Jewish Bund workersâ organizations), but a seldom remarked fact was that Luxemburg, too, wanted the reformist Revisionists thrown out of the German Social Democratic Party (Kautsky waffled on the issue). Lenin and Luxemburg wanted to split the Second International from its reformists (or, âopportunistsâ).
Lenin not only thought that splits, that is, political divisions, in the Left or the workersâ movement were possible and desirable, but also necessary. The only differences Lenin had with figures such as Luxemburg or Kautsky were over particular concrete instances in which such splits did or could or should have occurred. For instance, Luxemburg thought that the split in Russian Social Democracy in 1903 was premature and so did not concur with Lenin and the Bolsheviks on its benefits. And, importantly, the question was not merely over whether a political split could or should take place, but how, and, also, when. Politics was a historical phenomenon.
There is the specific question of the âpartyâ as a form of politics. Marx and Engels had written in the Communist Manifesto that, âThe Communists do not form a separate party opposed to the other working-class parties.â So, this would appear to present a problem in the case of Lenin, who is notorious for the âparty question.â But it poses a problem for the question of Marxism in general, for Marxism confronted other, opposed, political tendencies in the working class, for instance anarchism in the First International. What had changed between Marx and Engelsâs time and Leninâs?
As Marxists, Lenin and Luxemburg considered themselves to be vying for leadership of the social democratic workersâ movement and its political party; they didnât simply identify with either the party or the movement, both of which originated independently of them. Both the workersâ movement and the social-democratic party would have existed without Marxism. For them, the party was an instrument, as was the workersâ movement itself. In responding to Eduard Bernsteinâs remark that the âmovement is everything, the goal nothing,â Luxemburg went so far as to say that without the goal of socialism the workersâ movement was nothing, or perhaps even worse than nothing, in that it exacerbated the problem of capitalism, for instance giving rise to the âimperialistâ form of capitalism in the late 19th century. How were the social-democratic movement and its political parties understood by Marxists? For considering this, it is necessary to note well Marxâs critique of the Gotha Programme that had founded the German SPD and Engelsâs subsequent critique of the Erfurt Programme that had made Marxism the official perspective of the Social Democratic Party. They critiqued these programmes because thatâs what Marxists do: critique. No matter what had been written in these programmes, it was certain to elicit critiques from Marx and Engels.
The Marxists, that is, Marx and Engels, seem to have reluctantly gone along with the formation of a permanent party of social democracy, but not without serious reservations and caveats. The endorsement of party politics was provisional and conditional. For instance, in 1917, Lenin himself threatened to quit the Bolshevik party. Lenin thought that he could quit the party and continue to lead the revolution, that he would quit the party in order to lead the revolution.
Luxemburgâs biographer, British political scientist J.P. Nettl, traced the question of the social-democratic party to a set of problematic conceptions, all of which were challenged in practice and theory by the radical Left in the Second International, in figures such as Luxemburg and Lenin. The party could be conceived as an interest-aggregator and pressure-group on the state, advancing the interests of the working class. Or it could be conceived, as it was most overtly by its leadership, under its organizational leader August Bebel and its leading theorist Karl Kautsky, as a âstate within the state,â or what Nettl termed an âinheritor party,â aiming to take power. Involved in the latter was a theory not only of revolution but also of socialism, both of which were problematical. Specifically troublesome was the idea of building up the working classâs own organization within capitalism so that when its final crisis came, political power would fall into the hands of the social democrats, who had organized the working class in anticipation of such an eventuality. But these were conceptions that were challenged and critiqued, not only by later radicals such as Luxemburg and Lenin, but also by Marx and Engels themselves. Marxists such as Marx and Engels and Lenin and Luxemburg were, rightly, deeply suspicious of the social-democratic party as a permanent political institution of the working class.
The problem of party politics
To situate this discussion properly, it is important to return to the classical liberal scorn for political parties. There was no term of political contempt greater than âparty man,â or âpartisanâ politics, which violated not only the value of individuals thinking for themselves but also, perhaps more importantly, the very notion of politics in the liberal-democratic conception, especially with regard to the distinction between the state and civil society. Whereas the state was compulsory, civil society institutions were voluntary. While political parties, as forms of association, could be considered civil society organizations, the articulation of such formations with political power in the state struck classical liberal thinkers as particularly dangerous. Hegel, for one, explicitly preferred hereditary monarchy over democracy as a form of executive authority, precisely because it was free of such a problem. For Hegel, civil society would remain more free under a monarchy than under democracy, in which he thought political authority could be distorted by private interests. The danger lay in the potential for a civil society group to capture state power in its narrow, private interests. Moreover, in the classical liberal tradition, the idea of the professional âpoliticianâ was severely objectionable; rather, state-political figures rose through other civil society institutions, as entrepreneurs, professors, priests, etc., and only reluctantly took on the duty of public office: “Itâs a dirty job, but somebody has to do it.”
This problem of modern politics and its forms recurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to thinkers such as Robert Michels, a student and associate of Max Weber, similarly concerned with the problem of modern âbureaucracy,â who, in a landmark study, compared the German SPD to the Democratic Party in the U.S., specifically with regard to the issue of the âparty machine,â with its âward bosses,â or machine-party politics, and the resulting tendency towards what Michels called âoligarchy.â Michels had been a member of the SPD, in its radical wing, until 1907. (Michels, who also studied the Socialist Party in Italy, went on to join Italian fascism under the former Socialist Benito Mussolini, because he thought fascism was a solution to the problem of âbureaucracy,â but thatâs another story.) So the problem of party-politics was a well-known issue in Leninâs time. For Second International radical Marxists such as Luxemburg and Lenin, the workersâ social-democratic party was not to be an interest-aggregator and permanent political institution of social power like the Democratic Party in the U.S. (which ultimately became the party of the labor unions). What, then, was the function of the social-democratic party, for figures such as Lenin and Luxemburg?
Obviously, Leninâs concerns with politics were not the same as those of liberals, who sought to prevent the ossification of political authority from stymieing the dynamism of civil society in capitalism. For Leninâs concern was above all with revolution, that is, fundamental social transformation. But was the issue of politics thus so different in Leninâs case? This raises the important issue of in what way social revolution and transformation was related to âpolitics,â in the modern sense. That is, whether Lenin was interested in the âendâ of politics as conceived in liberalism and practiced under capitalism, or instead concerned with overcoming the obstacle to the practice of politics that capitalism had become. How was overcoming the social problem capitalism had become a new beginning, for the true practice of politics? In this sense, it is important to address how political mediation was brought into being but ultimately shaped and distorted by the modern society of capital, especially after the Industrial Revolution.
“Politics” is a modern phenomenon. Modern politics is conditioned by the crisis of capital in modern history. Traditional civilization, prior to the bourgeois, capitalist epoch, was subject to crises that could only be considered natural or divine in origin. Modern society is subject, for Marxists (as well as for liberals), rather, to human-made crisis thus potentially subject to politics. Bourgeois politics indeed responds to the permanent crisis of capitalism â in a sense, thatâs all it does â but in inadequate terms, naturalizing aspects of capitalism that should be regarded as changeable, but can only be so regarded, for Marxists, as radically and consistently changeable, from a proletarian or working-class socialist perspective. Thus, modern politics has been haunted by the âspecter of communism,â or socialism. As Marx put it, in The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte,
Every demand of the simplest bourgeois financial reform, of the most ordinary liberalism, of the most formal republicanism, of the most insipid democracy, is . . . stigmatized as âsocialism.â
Furthermore, the concrete meaning of socialism or communism is subject to change. For Marxists, the demand for socialism in the 19th century was itself an engine of capitalist development, historically. The story of socialism, then, is bound up with the development of capital, and the question of whether and how its crisis was growing and advancing.
Moreover, the question of party-politics per se is a post-1848 phenomenon, in which modern socialism was bound up. In other words, the crisis of bourgeois society in capital after the Industrial Revolution and the failure of the âsocial republicâ in 1848, was the crisis of bourgeois society as liberal. The rise of party-politics was thus a feature of the growing authoritarianism of bourgeois society, or, the failure of liberalism. As such, socialism needed to take up the problems of bourgeois society in capital that liberalism had failed to anticipate or adequately meet, or, to take up the cause of liberalism that bourgeois politics had dropped in the post-1848 world. For Marx, the problem was found most saliently in Louis Bonaparte’s popular authoritarianism against the liberals in Second Republic France, culminating in the coup dâĂŠtat and establishment of the Second Empire. As Marx put it, the capitalists were no longer and the workers not yet able, politically, to master the bourgeois society of capital. Party-politics was thus bound up with the historical phenomenon of Bonapartism.
Lenin and the crisis of Marxism
The period of close collaboration between Luxemburg and Lenin around the 1905 Russian Revolution saw Luxemburg leveling a critique of the relation that had developed between the social-democratic party and the labor unions in her pamphlet on The Mass Strike, the Political Party, and the Trade Unions. (Also, during this time Luxemburg wrote a defense of Lenin against the Menshevik charge of âBlanquism,â which she called âpedantic,â and thought said more of the reformist opportunism of those leveling the charge against Lenin than about its target.) In her Mass Strike pamphlet, Luxemburg delineated specific and non-identical roles for the various elements she mentioned in her title, that is to say, general strike committees, political parties, and labor unions (not mentioned specifically were the âsoviets,â or workers’ councils). In this sense, the âmass strikeâ was for Luxemburg a symptom of the historical development and crisis of social democracy itself. This made it a political and not merely tactical issue. That is, for Luxemburg, the mass strike was a phenomenon of how social democracy had developed its political parties and labor unions, and what new historical necessities had thus been brought into being. Luxemburgâs pamphlet was, above all, a critique of the social-democratic party, which she regarded as a historical symptom. This was prefigured in Luxemburgâs earlier pamphlet on Reform or Revolution?, where she addressed the question of the raison dâĂŞtre of the social-democratic movement (the combination of political party and labor unions).
From this perspective of regarding the history of the workersâ movement and Marxism itself as intrinsic to the history of capitalism, then, it becomes possible to make sense of Leninâs further articulations of politics in his later works, The State and Revolution and âLeft-Wingâ Communism: An Infantile Disorder, as well as in the political disputes that attended the young Soviet state that had issued from the Russian Revolution and had endured the Civil War and stabilization of international capitalism in the aftermath of WWI. Lenin maintained a strictly minimal conception of the state, restricting it to the monopoly of authority for the exercise of force, precisely in order to avoid an all-encompassing conception of the state as the be-all and end-all of politics. Similarly, Lenin deemed âinfantileâ the impatience of supposed radicals with existing forms of political mediation, such as parliaments, stating unequivocally that while Marxism may have âtheoreticallyâ surpassed a liberal conception of the state, this had not yet been achieved âpolitically,â that is, in practice. In response to Trotskyâs recommendation that labor unions be militarized in the Soviet state, Lenin maintained that unions needed to remain independent not only of the state, but also of the Communist Party itself. The workers needed the ability, according to Lenin, of asserting their rights against the party and the state. Lenin recognized the necessity of an articulated non-identity of state, political parties, and other voluntary civil society institutions such as labor unions. This was grounded in Leninâs perspective that capitalist social relations could not be abolished in one stroke through political revolution, that, even though the state had been âsmashed,â it was reconstituted, not on the basis of a new social principle, but on the continuation of what Lenin called âbourgeois right,â long after the political overthrow and even social elimination of a separate capitalist class. âBourgeois rightâ persisted precisely among the workers (and other previously subordinate members of society) and so necessarily governed their social relations, necessitating a state that could thus only âwither away.â Politics could be only slowly transformed.
Finally, there is the question of Adornoâs continued adherence to Lenin, despite what at first glance may appear to be some jarring contradictions with respect to Leninâs own perspective and political practice. For instance, in a late essay from 1969, âCritique,â Adorno praised the U.S. Constitutional system of âdivisions of powersâ and âchecks and balancesâ as essential to preserving the critical function of reason in the exercise of political authority. But this was an example for Adorno, and not necessarily to be hypostatized as such. The making common of executive and legislative authority in the âsovietâ system of âworkersâ councilsâ was understood by Lenin, as Adorno well knew, to coexist with separate civil society organizations such as political parties, labor unions and other voluntary groups, and so did not necessarily and certainly did not intentionally violate the critical role of political mediation, at various levels of society.
It has been a fundamental mistake to conflate and confuse Leninâs model of party politics for a form of state in pursuing socialism. Lenin presupposed their important non-identity. The party was meant to be one element among many mediating factors in society and politics. Moreover, Leninâs party was meant to be one among many parties, including multiple parties of the working class, vying for its adherence, and even multiple âMarxistâ parties, differing in their relation of theory and practice, or means and ends.
By contrast, there was nothing so repressive and authoritarian as the Kautskyan (or Bebelian) social-democratic âparty of the whole classâ (or, the âone class, one partyâ model of social democracy, that is, that since the capitalists are of one interest in confronting the workers, the workers need to be unified against the capitalists). The social-democratic party, after all, waged the counterrevolution against Lenin and Luxemburg.
Lenin preserved politics by splitting Marxism. For this, Lenin has never been forgiven. But, precisely for this, Lenin needs to be remembered. | §
Originally published in The Platypus Review 36 (June 2011).
Perhaps the most condemnatory thing that could be said of Badiouâs âcommunismâ was something Badiou himself wrote, when he defined âcommunismâ as a âKantian regulatory idea,â a norm to be aspired to, rather than a concrete reality to be achieved. This not only besmirched the historical Marxist idea of âcommunism,â but also Kant! For Kant addressed freedom as something that could and should be, not as a utopia. And Marx remained deeply engaged in practical politics. Leon Trotsky wrote, more than a hundred years ago, after the 1905 Russian Revolution (in the 1906 pamphlet Results and Prospects), that âMarxism converted socialism into a science, but this does not prevent some âMarxistsâ from converting Marxism into a Utopia.â Trotsky also wrote that, â[I]n academies . . . it might be possible artificially to detain the proletariat for fifty, a hundred or five hundred years, but in the course of all-round life in capitalist society, on the basis of unceasing class struggle[,] . . . [t]he growth of the consciousness of the proletariat transforms this class struggle, gives it a deeper and more purposeful character.â Trotsky was not a utopian any more than Kant or Marx were.
However, as we know, such âunceasing class struggleâ that Trotsky had in mind, which could âtransformâ the âconsciousness of the proletariatâ and potentially âgive it a deeper and more purposeful character,â is precisely what the world has been missing, for at least a generation. The Marxist vision for proletarian socialism has passed, almost completely into oblivion. Badiouâs late redefinition of âcommunismâ is a response â an adaptation â to this historical reality. Indeed, Trotsky was writing at the crest of 2nd International Marxism, which developed in the period from 1871 to 1917, whose history Badiou deliberately seeks to bury. Badiou characterizes this period, like our own, as an âinterval,â in which âthe communist hypothesis was declared to be untenable,â âwith the adversary in the ascendant.â What is the basis of Badiouâs judgment of this period, 1871 to 1917, in which, not only did bourgeois society go through its last great flowering, in the Belle Ăpoque, but Marxism flourished as an international workersâ movement, commanding a dedication to socialist revolution by millions in the core capitalist countries? The period between the Paris Commune and the October Revolution was not in any way like ours; it was not cynical, but optimistic in the sense of historical mission and the real potential of human progress. Badiou shares the skepticism that has developed regarding such historical potential. Indeed, we can say that Badiou is typical of the 1960s-era New Left in this regard. Badiou cannot recognize 2nd Intl. Marxism as an advance. Moreover, Badiou is, in Trotskyâs sense, âacademic,â despite his avowed intentions. The last thing Badiou imagines is that he has conceded. Badiouâs entire philosophy was developed out of concern for âfidelity,â resisting the apostasies of the 1968 generation in the decades that followed. â The question is, to what does Badiou claim fidelity? Certainly not Marxism.
What has sanctioned Badiou to bury the admittedly obscure history of the first wave of Marxism in the 2nd Intl., today? And why does Badiou find an affinity in our moment with that of the pre-WWI world, which otherwise seems so unlikely? In certain respects, Badiou is rather optimistic in finding such an affinity, hoping that today we are in a period of preparation for the realization of more radical social transformation â ârevolutionâ â down the road. Badiou thus tries to keep fidelity to âthe revolutionâ in his estimation of the present. But which ârevolution?â Badiou is clear that his model for revolution is May 1968 in France and the contemporaneous Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China. Presumably, in the latter case, this means a commitment to Mao and âMarxism-Leninism.â But, beneath this, there is a certain unmistakable pessimism to the characterization of the formative era of Leninâs Marxism in the 2nd Intl., as being, like ours, one of conservative reaction. â Was the growth of Marxism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries really a retreat, after the defeat of the Paris Commune? Or, has Badiou mistaken one revolution for another? Badiou has maintained fidelity, not to âcommunism,â in Marxâs sense, but rather to âdemocracy,â that is, the eternal bourgeois revolution. It is thus significant that Badiou dates modern communism, not to Marx in 1848, but to the Jacobins in 1792. This obscures the history that came between.
The truth is that Badiouâs âcommunismâ is deeply anti-Marxist. Not merely non-Marxist, in the sense of what it tends to leave out, but actually hostile to historical Marxism. Perhaps this is unremarkable. Perhaps it is not a problem in itself. But it may bear some inquiry into the potential consequences that might flow from this. Perhaps Badiou is quietly acknowledging that Marxism may have become an obstacle to the kind of social change that, in his estimation, is possible and desirable â and necessary. That is a real question. Does Marxism speak to the needs of the present? But to consider this â to consider what Badiou may have to offer as an alternative to Marxism â we must address what Badiou means by âcommunism.â
Badiou defines communism as âradical democratic equality.â The âhypothesisâ that motivates communism, according to Badiou, is that,
the logic of class â the fundamental subordination of labour to a dominant class, the arrangement that has persisted since Antiquity â is not inevitable; it can be overcome. . . . [A] different collective organization is practicable, one that will eliminate the inequality of wealth and even the division of labour. . . . The existence of a coercive state, separate from civil society, will no longer appear a necessity: a long process of reorganization based on a free association of producers will see it withering away.
Furthermore,
As a pure Idea of equality, the communist hypothesis has no doubt existed since the beginnings of the state. As soon as mass action opposes state coercion in the name of egalitarian justice, rudiments or fragments of the hypothesis start to appear. Popular revolts â the slaves led by Spartacus, the peasants led by MĂźntzer â might be identified as practical examples of this âcommunist invariant.â With the French Revolution, the communist hypothesis then inaugurates the epoch of political modernity.
However, the potential for emancipated humanity expressed in communism that Marx recognized in the modern history of capital is not assimilable without remainder to pre- or non-Marxian socialism. Marxâs thought and politics are not continuous with the Spartacus slave revolt against Rome or the teachings of the Apostles â or with the radical egalitarianism of the Protestants or the Jacobins. So what was Marxâs distinct contribution? As Marx put it, âCommunism is the necessary form and the dynamic principle of the immediate future, but communism as such is not the goal of human development, the form of human society.â This was because, according to Marx, âCommunism is a dogmatic abstraction and . . . only a particular manifestation of the humanistic principle and is infected by its opposite, private property.â Marx was not the preeminent communist of his time but rather its critic, seeking to push it further. The best Marxists who followed, such as Lenin, Luxemburg and Trotsky, similarly sought to push their respective political movement of ârevolutionary social democracyâ in the 2nd Intl. further. In so doing, they revealed and grappled with the form of capital of their moment in history, what they called âimperialism,â seeking to make it into capitalâs âhighestâ and last stage, the eve of revolution. Badiou, by contrast, addresses inequality as a timeless, perennial problem. He thus departs fundamentally from Marx and Marxism, and liquidates the revolution of capital.
Badiou conceives of the relation between freedom and equality as an ontological one, in the mathematical terms of set theory, transhistoricizing it. Badiouâs background is in Lacanian and Althusserian âpost-structuralistâ French thought, in common with other prominent New Left-era thinkers â and former students of Louis Althusser â such as Ătienne Balibar and Jacques Rancière. Althusser found, in the Russian and Chinese Revolutions, a salutary challenge to the notion of the Hegelian âlogic of history,â that revolutionary change could and indeed did happen as a matter of contingency. Althusser took great inspiration from Mao in China and Lenin in Russia for advancing the possibility of emancipation against a passive expectancy of automatic evolution in the historical process of capital. For Badiou, this means that emancipation must be conceived of as an âevent,â which involves a fundamental reconsideration of ontology. Badiou does not conceive of the transformation of the capitalist mode of production that would allow for overcoming the socially pernicious aspects of specifically capitalist forms of inequality. By contrast, Marx looked forward to the potential for overcoming the conditions of possibility for the reproduction of capitalist class dynamics in the mode of production itself: capitalâs overcoming of the need to accumulate the value of surplus labor-time. Marx saw the historical potential to overcome this socially mediating aspect of labor, expressed, for instance, in automated machine production. However, Marx also foresaw that, short of socialism, the drive to accumulate surplus-value results in producing a surplus population, an âindustrial reserve armyâ of potential âworkersâ who thus remain vulnerable to exploitation. A politics based only in their âdemocraticâ discontents can result, not in the overcoming of the social need for labor, but in the (capitalist) demand for more labor, the demand to be put to work. Or, as Max Horkheimer, director of the Marxist Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, put it, machines âhave made not work but the workers superfluous.â Marx anticipated this when he warned that realization of the socialist demand to abolish âprivate propertyâ would (merely) make society as a whole into one giant capitalist dominating its members. Marx even went so far as to analogize this with socialist calls to abolish marriage as a âbourgeoisâ institution, which he said would result only in universal prostitution â indeed, that capitalism was already bringing this about.
For Marx, elimination of a separate capitalist class would not in itself be emancipatory unless a transformation in the âmode of productionâ and its social relations came about. Marx did not think that the capitalists were the cause, but the effect of capital, calling them its âcharacter masks.â Nonetheless, Marx endorsed, however critically, the traditional socialist demand to abolish private property and âexpropriate the expropriators,â regarding this as a necessary first step: necessary, but not sufficient, to realize a society beyond the mode of production and social relations of capital. As Lenin underscored this, in The State and Revolution,on the eve of the October 1917 Revolution in Russia, such social relations of bourgeois society, namely, the mutual exchange of labor as the form of social solidarity in capital, could only be transformed gradually and thus âwither away,â and not be abolished and replaced at a stroke. The proletarian socialist revolution was supposed to open the door to this transformation. But, since then, the history of the Russian and Chinese Revolutions showed another potential, that is, the reconstitution of capital, under the guise of âsocialism.â Marx had already foreseen such a possibility in the limited consciousness of his socialist and communist contemporaries of the 19th century, and he criticized them âruthlesslyâ for this. Marx and Lenin recognized a problem in âsocialismâ itself that their supposed followers have neglected or avoided.
All this remains hidden to Badiou. But it was precisely this Marxist approach to capital as a âmode of production,â or form of society, that distinguishes Marx from other socialists or communists, and motivated revolutionaries who followed Marx, such as Lenin, maintaining that Marxism pursued the possibility of overcoming capital âon the basis of capitalismâ itself. Badiou situates emancipatory possibilities rather atavistically, in a pre-historical ontology, to which the philosophy of mathematics â for instance, the question of ânumber and numbersâ (the title of one of his books) â can be an adequate guide. For Badiou, in a procedure that recalls a self-criticism session or assembly at a âreeducationâ camp, matter itself, in its open-ended recombinations, poses the solution to what Marx called âcommunism,â the âriddle of history.â Each element must be broken down to its radical potentiality for permutation â for instance, in the Maoist ârevolutionary people,â for emancipatory change to take place. It is not for nothing that Badiou conceives of revolution not as a process but an event, or, that his conception of âprocessâ is founded on a conception of the âevent.â On the other hand, Badiou finds Marxists such as Lenin (and Marx himself) conceding to the existing social hierarchies and thus betraying the âidea of communism,â for instance in the party-state, which Badiou regards in retrospect as a âfailed experiment.â Thus, Badiou.
What of Marx and Marxism? Marx distinguished capitalist inequality from that of the traditional caste system that had characterized civilization for millennia before the emergence of bourgeois society in the post-Renaissance world. As Adorno pointed out, to call all of history the âhistory of class strugglesâ was to indict all of (ârecordedâ) history, and to thus consign it to the mere âpre-historyâ of authentic humanity. But this humanity was itself historically specific, and emergent â to the era of capital. Just as traditional inequality was not the cause of the form of community that the ancients regarded as being divine in origin, capitalist inequality was not the cause but the effect, the product of the cosmos of capital. Marxâs magnum opus, Capital, explored how the post-Industrial Revolution society of capital produced a new form of inequality, between capitalist and worker, but one liable to be cast and responded to in the form of the original Revolt of the Third Estate that had ushered in modern bourgeois society in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marx found an important disparity â a self-contradiction â to have developed between the political aspirations of the subjects of capital, for âsocial democracy,â and the potential of capital to go beyond bourgeois society and its forms of politics â liberalism and democracy. This did not make Marx and those who followed him illiberal or anti-democratic, but they did regard liberalism and democracy â the combined libertarian and social-egalitarian impulses in modern politics â as means and not ends in and of themselves. This is because they regarded capitalism itself as a process and not merely a state of being. Marx and his best followers, such as Lenin, looked forward not merely to more liberalism and more democracy, but to the potential transcendence of the need for both liberalism and democracy, an âendâ to politics as presently practiced. But not all at once, and not by denying them in the present. Capital is not an eternal event of inequality that needs to be met with the event of revolution. Badiou does not deny liberalism and democracy, but rather unconsciously reaffirms their present, bourgeois forms, at a deeper and more obscure level. Badiouâs ontology of âradical egalitarian democracy,â provides not a critical recognition, but a philosophical affirmation of the way bourgeois society already proceeds, however contradictorily. Badiou mystifies.
The challenge is to recognize the symptomatic character of liberalism and democracy in the crisis of capital, as it had developed in the 19th century, setting the stage for the history that came later. But such symptomology was not to be âcuredâ in the sense of elimination, but rather undergone and worked through â as Nietzsche put it, modernity is an âillness, but the way pregnancy is an illness,â bringing forth new life. The problem, as Marx recognized it, was that, by the mid-19th century, when bourgeois society entered into crisis, after the Industrial Revolution, and became âproletarianized,â humanity faced a situation in which, as Engels later described it, the capitalists were no longer and the workers not yet able to master the society of capital. Marx regarded this as the source of the authoritarianism of the modern, capitalist (nation-)state, despite the promises of classical bourgeois liberalism for a minimal state and a free, cosmopolitan civil society that would, for instance, reduce legislatures to, at most, sites of public debate and political recognition of social facts already accomplished on the ground â what Kant, for one, expected. But the bourgeoisie could no longer and the proletariat not yet rule modern society. The genie of capital had been let loose. The historical task of emancipating humanity had thus fallen from the bourgeois to the proletarian members of society. Marxists have recognized that this is the situation in which the world has remained stuck ever since then â ever since the failed âsocial democraticâ Revolutions of 1848, on the eve of which Marx and Engels had published their inaugural Manifesto. For Marx, the demand for âsocial democracyâ was part of the history of capital, to be worked through âimmanentlyâ and transcended. But none of this registers for Badiou. Marx marked a potential turning point for humanity; he was not merely one in a chain of prophets reaching back for thousands of years. He was thinker and political actor for our, modern time.
The cost of liquidating the specific history of capital â its peculiar constraint on society and its potential beyond itself â is Badiouâs reduction of âcommunismâ to the perennial complaint of the subaltern, the millennial dream of social equality, as a specter haunting the world that has more in common with eschatological âjustice,â posed by religion at the end of time, than with the pathology of the modern, bourgeois world of capital, in which humanity actually suffers today. We must awaken from this nightmare â the vain wish that things be otherwise â of the oppressed. For we are not only oppressed, but tasked by capital.
Nevertheless, the failure of historical Marxism has made Badiou an evidently adequate symptomatic expression of our time â its confusion and diminished expectations, well shy of the epochal transformation that had motivated Marx and the best Marxists, historically. We must remember Marxism, so we can forget Badiou: forget the time that made such ideology â such naturalization, indeed ontologization â of defeat so appealing, and finally consign it, where it belongs, to pre-history. | §
THE UPRISING IN EGYPT, which followed soon after the toppling of the old regime in Tunisia, succeeded in bringing down Hosni Mubarak on February 11, the 32nd anniversary to the day of the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran. Already, before this timely coincidence, comparisons between the Iranian Revolution and the revolts gripping the Arab world had started to be made. But other historical similarities offered themselves: the various âcolor revolutionsâ in Eastern Europe and former Soviet Central Asian states and Lebanon in recent years; and the collapse of Communism in the Soviet bloc and beyond (the former Yugoslavia) starting with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Behind these revolutions on the pattern of 1989 stood the event of which 1989 itself had been the bicentennial, the Great French Revolution of 1789. The Bastille is to be stormed again, anew. Who would not welcome this?
A more pessimistic, if no less invidious comparison offered itself, especially prior to Mubarakâs ouster: the equally dramatic but failed Green Movement in the election crisis in Iran that marked 30 years of the Islamic Revolution in 2009.[1] Just as the Green Movement posed the question of reforming the Islamic Republic, events in Egypt have raised the specter of authoritarianism continuing, despite everything, albeit without Mubarak as tyrant. Indeed, comparisons of Egypt with Iran, both in 1979 and 2009, are telling in several different respects. To be sure, the emancipatory prospects in Egypt today are even more remote than in Iran in either 1979 or 2009.  If there is a more fruitful comparison to be made it is with Iran not in 1979 but 2009.
The destruction of the Left, historically, has been naturalized more completely in present-day Egypt than it had been in Iran by 1979. Going back to the 1950s, because of Nasserismâs subordination and suppression of the Left, the strongest opposition movement in Egypt today is the Muslim Brotherhood, which has a longer history and is much stronger than Khomeini-style Islamism had been in Iran on the eve of the Islamic Revolution. While the Khomeiniite Islamic Republic has destroyed the Left more completely in Iran since 1979, it is also the case that the reform movement in the Islamic Republic has had a longer history of organization â for almost 20 years, now â than the opposition in Egypt has at present. The prospects for organized reform, in other words, ran deeper in Iran at the moment of the Green Movement election crisis in 2009 than is the case in Egypt today. This poses both more radical possibilities and dangers for Egypt than in Iran two years ago. The Green Movement could beat a retreat in the face of defeat in ways that the unfolding crisis in Egypt might not be so controlled. But this spiraling out of control that has raised much greater radical prospects in Egypt, as opposed to Iran in 2009, may prove to be the case at least as much for ill as for good. The military has been able to come to the rescue of the state in Egypt, and this has been met with joy not angry disappointment. What links both eruptions of democratic discontent, in Iran and Egypt, then, is their authoritarian outcome.
Putting aside the rather superficial narratives that emphasize how events in Egypt and Tunisia disprove the supposed intractability and lack of âdemocraticâ spirit in the Arab or Muslim world â as if this needed proving â we must nevertheless ask about the legacy of the history of the Left â its defeats and failures â that condition present possibilities. The history of the Left, both locally and globally, and reaching back for generations, is important, perhaps not so much for the obvious reasons â a relative lack of âdemocratic institutionsâ in one or another part of the world, or, indeed, globally, today, by contrast with the past â as that it raises the question of history per se. What resources does history provide to the present? For the comparisons â however invidious â with the situation in and for Egypt are all historical in nature. So the question of history and its effects presses for consideration. Whether one approaches the matter of historical precedence with hope or anxiety, still, there is the question of how appropriate to the present any reach for such precedence may truly be. Like any event, the massive popular uprising in Egypt is in important ways unprecedented and new. This is its power. It demands its moment in the sun and refuses all comparisons, insisting upon its sui generis character, which it cannot be denied, even if it is not yet fully revealed.[2] What impresses itself is how much this moment will be allowed to realize itself â to make its departure from previous history. Or, conversely, how it will be drawn back into and subsumed by historyâs ineluctable force. Why should we care about history, when emancipation makes its attempt at escaping its dead hand? â How is the unfolding present already history?
Gamal Abdel Nasser during the 1956 Suez Crisis.
Beneath the elation â if not euphoria â of the international Left at the popular overthrow of Mubarak is the fundamental ambiguity and so radical ambivalence of democratic revolution in our time. But this has been so not only since 1979 or 1989 but 1789. However, unlike the French Revolution of 1789, whatever its tortured career and the opposed judgments about it, democratic revolutions since then have been dogged by the specter of failure. One thing that cannot be said of 1789 is that it failed, however ambiguous was its success. Yet a repressed, largely unknown, and importantly failed moment has haunted the history of modern revolutions, the event that prompted Marxâs famous phrase about history âweighing like a nightmare on the brains of the livingâ: 1848. âThe Spring of the Nationsâ in 1848, the revolutions in France, Germany and beyond, has completely escaped the imagination of present considerations of the moment of democratic revolution. This present absence is itself quite revealing, and needs to be addressed. For it may be that comparison with 1848 is the most obscure but important of all.
For Marxism, 1848 is the canon of failure. What once made Marxism â whose founding political statement was 1848âs Communist Manifesto â such an important force in the world was its awareness of the problem of 1848, or, why 1789 has kept repeating itself over and over in modern history, but without success. The converse of the Manifestoâs rousing call to action, to treat history as the âhistory of class struggles,â was Marxâs writing the history of his present moment, the culminating climax and failure of the 1848 Revolution in The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.[3] But these two of Marxâs most widely quoted writings were documents of both promise and defeat.
What made the 1848 Revolution so important to Marx and subsequent Marxism was the light that it shed on the history of the bourgeois revolution. 1848 was both the last of the classical bourgeois revolutions and the first of the socialist revolutions that have marked the modern, bourgeois era. Henceforth, the fates of liberalism and socialism have been indissolubly tied â even if their connection has been extremely fraught. Liberalism could not do without socialism, nor socialism without liberalism. Every democratic revolution since 1848 has faced this two-fold task â and has, without exception, foundered on the shoals of its contradictions. Marxism was the attempt to transcend the antinomy of individual and collective freedom â or of liberalism and socialism in âsocial democracyâ â to realize both, by transcending both. Marx and Engels emblazoned this demand in their Manifesto with the slogan of âFrom each according to his ability, to each according to his need!,â which was to be realized in the âfreedom of eachâ as the âprecondition for the freedom of all.â â Importantly, Marx and Engels were the originators of neither of these catchphrases for what âcommunismâ meant.  The twin fates of liberalism and socialism after 1848 have shared in the failure of this Marxist vision for emancipation.[4]
What explains the undemocratic outcomes of democratic revolution in the modern era? Certainly one can take only so much comfort in Thomas Jeffersonâs saying that a revolution every generation or so is a good thing â as if frequent revolutions are necessary to restore democracy. Or, if so, the reasons for this must still be explained, beyond âcorruption,â the perennial complaint of the subaltern. Whence does this recurrent âcorruptionâ of the democratic moment spring? And why does it manifest itself so much more dramatically at some times than others? Perhaps revolution is not always such an unambiguously good thing. Especially if, as Marx put it, it threatens to be the âfirst time as tragedyâ and the âsecond time as farce.â  What comes of revolution if it is taken to be fate? There is nothing so ârevolutionaryâ as capital itself.
The 1848 Revolution had secured universal suffrage and established the 2nd Republic in France, but at the price, wryly observed by Marx, of bringing an authoritarian demagogue, Louis Bonaparte (Napoleonâs nephew), to power â to the horror of liberal democratic sentiment at the time â as its first elected President, promising to âsave society.â It is because Bonaparte overthrew the 2nd Republic, and established a 20-year 2nd Empire that followed at the end of his term as President less than four years later, that the massacre of the workers in June 1848 did not become forgotten as a historical footnote and regarded as merely a bump in the road of democracy, for it came to presage the authoritarian repression of society that followed, in which members of the bourgeoisie became subject to the same treatment first meted out to the rebellious workers. Marxists used the term âBonapartismâ to describe this phenomenon of suppression of democracy with popular assent, which has repeated itself so consistently in history after 1848 â for instance, in âNasserismâ in Egypt and other forms of Arab nationalism (the so-called âArab Revolutionâ) in the 1950sâ60s. Such Orwellian reality of all subsequent history has its beginning, with Marx, in 1848. The soldier held aloft triumphantly on the shoulders of democratic demonstrators in the streets of Cairo already wears the mask of Bonaparte â not the greater but the lesser. For such turns of modern revolution, after 1848, do not vouchsafe progress, however dubiously, but rather wager its foolhardy chances, mocking them. As Horkheimer put it in the 1920s, after the ebbing of the failed world revolutionary wave of 1917â19, âAs long as it is not victorious, the revolution is no good.â[5] So, the question becomes, what would be the conditions for true victory? What success can we aspire to win?
Egyptian military officer cheered on by demonstrators in Cairo.
Marx attempted to capture this problem in his demand that the revolution âtake its poetry from the futureâ rather than the past. But if this is more than the banal statement it appears at first glance, then it raises a rather obscure difficulty: In what way can present revolution draw upon the emancipatory energy of the future? And Marxâs dedicated follower Walter Benjaminâs caveat echoes closely behind, that faith in the future sapped the strength of the revolution, which, Benjamin wrote, needed to be ânourished with the image of enslaved ancestors rather than liberated grandchildren.â[6] But we may need both imaginations â of emancipation and redemption â today. The question is, how so?
Marx and the history of Marxism still speak, even if their voices are drowned out in the clamoring din of the present. In history after 1848, Marx understood a world â the present â caught between past and future. Marxâs term for this historical world, âcapital,â refers to the radical ambivalence of the present: its being already past, accumulating all of history and annexing the future, continually crowding the moment off stage; and its constant liquidation of that history, the incessant consumption of the moment in light of a future that never arrives. Past and future seem to recede infinitely beyond the horizons of a present that is as perpetual as it is empty and futile, trapped, static but constantly in motion. So we resign ourselves to the presentâs eternal passing and recurrence, in which âeverything changesâ and yet âremains the same.â
Hosni Mubarak and son Gamal cast votes in the last election.
Egyptians may be driven today by the specter of enslaved ancestry, provoked by the force of what Benjamin described as the âhatredâ and spirit of âself-sacrificeâ necessary to make a bid for history. But they are also certainly prompted, as Benjamin put it, to âactivate the emergence brakeâ on the âlocomotiveâ of history that would otherwise condemn posterity.[7] They may be motivated not only to redeem past sacrifice but to prevent future loss that could yet be rendered unnecessary. It is not that Mubarakâs rule became too long or old, but that it threatened to become indefinite â the leering face of the son â that provoked the demand for its end, precisely at the risk of the present. âI donât care if I die,â the sentiment widely expressed around Tahrir Square, is the signal moment to which Benjaminâs philosophy of history attends: to bring time to a halt. But such resolve expresses the will to live, although not merely to continue life unchanged.
Not only are we history, but the future will be.
The problem we must face is that the imagination of emancipation â which defines the âLeftâ as such[8] â is today divided, between the desperation of wishing for the unprecedented new, and desiring for return to the missed moments of opportunity, the potential embodied in past attempts, however failed â attempts at both the escape from and the redemption of history. 1789, 1848, 1871, 1917, 1979, 1989: they will not return â thank God! But we mourn them nonetheless. What was lost with them? Perhaps nothing. An emancipated future beckons; however, it eludes our grasp, outrunning us in the onrush of time. âTime waits for no one.â The future grants no refuge. There is no peace, not even of the graveyard. As Benjamin put it, âEven the dead are not safe.â But history remains. It may be unavoidable â as much as the future is. So, the question is, what are we going to do with it? If we are trapped between past and future, perhaps we will not be crushed but can bring them together and galvanize their force even more powerfully in the present: we are pulverized all the more surely for trying to slip the vise. Past failures may dispirit, and bewildering, dystopic futures may threaten. Or: History and utopia can both be enlisted to the aid of the present. If only.
âWhat now?,â Egypt asks us. We do not ask it. This question should be posed, not as it is wont, as a hope or a fear, but as a task, however exclaimed or whispered. It is not to be answered with exuberance or resignation, but determination. The resolution that not only are we, inevitably, history, but the future will be. | §
Originally published in The Platypus Review #33 (March 2011).
2. See Hamid Dabashi, âThe False Anxiety of Influence,â Al Jazeera English, February 12, 2011. Available on-line at: <http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/opinion/2011/02/201121215216318526.html>. Undeniably, as Dabashi writes, âFrom Tehran to Tunis to Cairo and beyond, our innate cosmopolitan cultures are being retrieved, our hidden worlds discovered, above and beyond any anxiety of influence.â
J.M. Bernstein, Lydia Goehr, Gregg Horowitz, and Chris Cutrone
On Saturday, November 20, 2010, Platypus hosted a panel entitled âThe Relevance of Critical Theory to Art Todayâ moderated by Chris Mansour at The New School for Social Research in New York. The panel consisted of Philosophy Professors J.M. Bernstein (The New School), Lydia Goehr (Columbia University), and Gregg Horowitz (Pratt Institute and Vanderbilt University), and Chris Cutrone (Adjunct Assistant Professor of Art History, Theory and Criticism, School of the Art Institute of Chicago), member of Platypus. What follows is an edited transcript of the event. Full video is available online at <http://newyork.platypus1917.org/what-is-critique-symposium-video-documents>.
Opening remarks
Chardin, The House of Cards (1735)
J.M. (Jay) Bernstein: Some 25 years ago, I asked Terry Eagleton and Fredric Jameson why two revolutionary Marxists spend so much time talking about Jane Austen. They replied, âBecause thatâs where the bourgeoisie have pitched their tent.â I felt that answer was true, but also insufficient. If the bourgeoisie have a stake in high culture, as one of the ways society reproduces itself, then it makes sense for Marxists to critique the practices that constitute high culture. But, beyond the issue of social integration, what stake do Marxists have in art?
The Marxist story runs something like this: By a certain moment, everyday life in modernity had become formed by the reduction of use-values to exchange-values, the fungibility and exchangeability of all material artifacts, the rule of technology, the rule of bureaucracy, the domination of capital markets, and the disenchantment of nature. Now, if you were Adorno, you would say that all of this amounts to the hegemony of instrumental reason over all forms of human reasoning. You would further say that art, in becoming purposeless, could become a refuge for another form of world address. Artworks are not fungible, not replaceable by one another, and not quantifiable. Rather, artworks make a claim on us simply by virtue of their material complexion, their ordering of sensual materials.
Modern artâI see modernism as the extension of modern artâis the attempt to think through this moment. First and foremost, the autonomy of art from politics, from science, from all the functions it might have in the world, was a world-historical calamity. Modern art begins as a kind of disaster. To understand the meaning of art is to understand the nature of that disaster. Art was taken out of the world and deposited in this realm where it has to make sense of its practice wholly in terms of itself. The puzzle of modern art is this functional emptiness that is nonetheless a form of content. First for Friedrich von Schiller, then for Adorno, the autonomy of art became a sort of opportunity. I think you can read all of modern art, right through high modernism into certain versions of postmodernism, as having embarked on the same project.
Caravaggio, Conversion on the Way to Damascus (1601)
Yves-Alain Bois, along with all the writers who are part of what I will call âthe aesthetic,â agree in one way or another that the primary gesture of modern art is the tearing away from materials, ideologies, and formalisms. At firstâthat is, with Dutch Realism in the 17th century, as with Caravaggio and, later, Chardinâthis tearing away is emancipatory. It frees art from religious and related forms of reference, allowing representations to become immanent in gesture, rather than exemplifying some presumptively eternal idea. It is here that we see art becoming autonomous. In this respect, modern art was part of the secularizing of the world, but with this secularization came the idea that a wholly secular world could be infinitely valuable. Thus, with secularization came the project of sacralizing the everyday, but in a wholly secular way.
However, this project became increasingly harassed and defensive as modernity itself became an ideology, a series of forms of closure and domination. At that moment modernity ceased to be the emancipator, and became a problem. I would place that moment somewhere around 1848, with the failure of the bourgeois revolutions, though of course for some, notably Rousseau and Schiller, modernity had become a significant problem much earlier.
The notion of decoding, for Yves-Alain Bois, is broadly what Jacques Rancière means by the shift from the representational regime to the aesthetic regime. It is what Adorno means by the retreat of form in the face of materials that are in-formed, and what Gilles Deleuze means by the shift from representation to sensation. All of these I take to be riffs on the notion of purposefulness without purpose, which has this thought behind it: What painting provides is an account of our conviction in, and connection to, the world through visual experience. With modern art it became natural to find the authority of painting in its capacity to demonstrate how objects have a more than instrumental call on our capacity to live with them. That thought is fully there, for example, in Dutch Realism and in the tradition of the still life. By placing physical things in the visual environment and purifying them of any uplifting or instrumental features, by just letting them be there for our visual inspection, art returns us to this world. It allows us to be present to ourselves and for the world to be present to us.
Van Gogh, Chair (1888)
This is both enthralling and a disaster, because it means that everyday life has begun to disintegrate. I think of Van Goghâs Chair (1888) as an eloquent moment connecting the dignity of the mere thing with the dignity of paint on canvas. Van Goghâs moment is just that, a moment in which object and canvas speak to one another, each lending the other its authority. In the very moments of artâs so-called existential emptiness, of its not being about the world, there is the appearance of the world. This is artâs power.
Philistines hate art for that moment of emptiness. This moment, at one level, is irredeemable. But this moment of emptiness is artâs moment of fullness. Modern art imbricates and provides a refuge for a disenchanted but affirmative materialism in which objects could be meaningful in themselves, and not just in what they are useful for. These objects are sources of compelling experience amidst a world of sensory bombardment. They are a promise of happiness.
Though this promise is wildly different from Benjamin to Adorno to Rancière, these thinkers all avow some version of it. The promise is often taken to be insufficient as, after all, artworks are not life. What they promise is a different future, and in so doing artworks threaten to leave our present evacuated. This is the central difficulty of all modern art practices: If art has no other power than its mere presence, the attempt to provide it with political significance from the outside is always bound to fail. Art can only have what it offers, namely the salience of visual experience, by embracing the difficulty of that moment of protest by allowing for visual fullness.
Having said that, I need to return to where I began. This moment of protest in art only has cultural significance if the world cares about culture. I take the problem of the present not to be that art has gone awry, but that culture has gone awry. The bourgeoisie has discovered that capital can reproduce itself without social integration. Capital can get on very well with a dispersed, fragmented, wholly disarticulated cultural domain. The difficulty of modern art, in my judgement, is this: How can art address the problem of cultural weight when the bourgeoisie has disavowed it altogether?
Lydia Goehr: To Adorno critique is not the promise of happiness, nor the promise of freedom. It is always immanent critique, the turning of thought back upon itself. Asking the question, âWhat is critique?â might indicate that we have raised the very notion of critique to a concept. In that respect we fetishize the concept of critique, just as we have fetishized the concepts of âhappiness,â âlife,â âhistory,â and so on. Critical theory is about the immanent critique of our language, which is to say, the language of our thought and the language of our concepts. Language is our concepts, our concepts are our social logics. The way in which we think through thought is by producing a challenge to that which has authority over us, namely our concepts, like âpersonality,â ânarrative,â and âsubject.â The paradox, or the extreme difficulty, of doing immanent critique is that we have to use the tools that are the subject of our critique, so the critique always has to turn back on itself as an ongoing process. In that sense it has no external objects, although it is constantly mediated by the objects that are antithetical to our thinkingânamely, things like works of art.
The real difficulty is that you can never break out of the thinking about thinking. You are constantly confronted by the things that have most authority over you, namely the concepts you are actually implying. I want to illustrate this by one example I like to use from the field of music. When we perform a musical work thereâs this idea of Werktreue, of being true to the work. We know that the work has authority over our performance insofar as we are performing a work, but Adorno suggests that the way we are true to a work is precisely by being untrue to it. What he meant was that, insofar as we perform the work against its grain, by not just trying to replicate it, but by playing with it, we challenge the authority that the work-concept has over us. To be true to the work ends up being untrue to the concept of the work. Performance of music, then, becomes a way to redeem something about the musical work, if the musical work is resisting the concept under which it falls, namely the concept of âa musical work.â
This is the way that some of the so-called âsocial truth contentâ comes out of critique: It exposes the authority that concepts have over us. My suggestion is that one way to think about critique is in terms of looking for ways in our thinking to break the authority our thinking has over us. In that sense, there is nowhere to go outside of our own capacity to think.
Gregg Horowitz:I started really thinking about this panel around ten days ago. At the end of every day, it was almost tomorrow, which meant that the thoughts were already too late. I only found my way out of this conundrum through this extraordinary document that has been published in a recent issue of the New Left Review, of a discussion between Adorno and Horkheimer in 1956, which Gretel Adorno recorded. [1] They discussed what it would mean to rewrite the Communist Manifesto. And I thoughtâthatâs a thought about today. It is visibly a thought about today. For such a project, you would think the main themes in connecting up the past, the present, and the future, would be something like this: The past was the revolution, the present is actually existing socialism, and the future depends on whether actually existing socialism points in a meaningful way to a socialism worth endorsing. But thatâs not what they talk about. Rather, the past is the party, understood as an audience whom a writer interested in socialism might address. Marx, after all, begins the Communist Manifesto with an address to the party. The future, then, is a question of who would care about the writing. And the present, it turns out, is largely a matter of motorbikes. This is Europe in 1956, and youths are riding on motorbikes all over, making pestiferous noise. The question kept occuring to Horkheimer and Adorno, âWhy does everybody love motorbikes?â Now this seems to be what it means to think about the present: thinking about the sound of motorbikes roaring in your ears as you think through the party, on the one hand, and whom to address, on the other.
If our future is anywhere, the thought usually goes, it will be in the present. No other future can matter other than the future that is here in the present. This self-conscious entrenchment in the present reminds us that critical theory, both as it was articulated but also, more importantly, as we have to receive it, was not simply a response to social regression, but a symptom of social regression. As Adorno said, philosophy carries on because its moment of realization was missed. For philosophy, as for critical theory, something has migrated into the realm of thought that is somehow not at home in the realm of thought. In this sense philosophy is struck by the same regression that critical theory takes itself to be reflecting on.
To put this point in a more general register, thinking is not self-determining, but is always shaped by the practices out of which it emerges and to which it instinctively tries to return. The more it is frustrated in this endeavor, the more insistent it is to return. The idea that thinking is not self-determining represents the decay of a certain image of philosophy. At that point one wants to assert that the whole project of spinning a system of thought out of concepts is now simply behind us. It is for this reason that we can say that Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud remain the central background figures, because they sought to think through, not the future completion, but the radical incompleteness of philosophy. That philosophy, of all disciplines, would be radically incomplete implies that all practices are radically incomplete. No thought, no practice, can cordon itself off from the social world of which it is a part. Critique wants to get behind the veil, to get to the bottom of things from which we can start over in the full light of truth. But precisely this impulse, this thought, has to be treated as symptomaticâit ends up inhibiting thought.
We always start exactly where we are. This is neither to say that nothing of the past is left, nor that everything is so thoroughly mediated that the origin has disappeared. Rather, there is no starting over because nothing of the past ever goes away. The urge to start over attests to a learned distrust in our capacity to remember, to sustain experience. Memory is weak, and in response to this weakness the feeling arises that things are going away, and we want to get back to the things themselves. This weakness is crucial to reflect on. For it is not in the strength, but in this moment of memoryâs weakness that the past rises up in the light of that future which we cannot determine in the present.
All understanding of the present has to start with the acknowledgement that we are not the future the past had in mind and that, for this reason, in some sense we stand in the way of the future the past had in mind. I do not know how to sustain this thought for longâit hurts. One task that we can pose to critique, insofar as we turn against ourselves in this moment of weakness, is to unlock another futureâperhaps another modernity.
I am putting to critique the task of understanding the present, but to understand the present is to grasp it as if it has already passed away. In the dialogue between Adorno and Horkheimer, Adorno makes the comment that the horror of the present is that we live in a world where we cannot imagine a better one. To say that we live in a world where we cannot imagine a better one is to say that we cannot see this world as one that has passed away. We cannot see the present in the light of a future that the present does not intend. The standard line is that, for critical theory, to grasp the world as past has meant totalizing the world, or seeing it from the point of view of its completeness, with nothing falling outside the totality. But this is a limited conception of totalization. It is not merely that nothing falls outside, but that anything that does fall outside of the totality is a harbinger or an ambassador of a different world. This thought has been susceptible to a religious interpretation that I am going to do everything I can to avoid. Totalization in this respect is the precondition for opening up the cracks through which the light of the future can shine, right now, on the past and the present. Horkheimer says in his dialogue with Adorno, âI donât believe things will turn out well.â And by âthingsâ he means everything. But the thought that things might turn out well is indispensable. Nothing falls outside but the thought that something in the present does shine a light on the past.
With regard to art, I agree with Jay that modernist art has been taken up as a kind of self-overcoming of the present. Modernist art is not the futureâHeaven forbidâbut, rather, it is the light that shines from the future onto the past, the light whose uselessness is what the present does not yet know how to make use of. Adorno only articulated this thought retrospectively. That is, Adorno felt that the moment of modernist artâs capacity to be this light had already passed. Modernist art had been absorbed by the culture industry.
The contrast between the culture industry and modernist art is often articulated so radically that absorption is thought of as cancellation. But absorption is not the same as negation. Rather, I think of absorption the way I think of how, when you wash your dishes, the sponge absorbs the odor of what is being discarded. It is retained in trace form. The inevitability of the absorption is clear once the demand for a different future has been articulated. Once made, that demand is already on the way to becoming a commodity. What we need is not a demand for another future, but for another past. We need the paradoxical demand of a past that will steer us toward a future that we cannot anticipate. From this it follows that no art practice can ever be âsubversive.â Art practices can be subverted, but no art practice can ever be subversive. Art is, and should be, too much in love with experience in the present to ever be subversive. For any art that is worth taking seriously, absorption in the culture industry seems inevitable.
However controversial this statement may be, I believe critical theory has before it now the task of demolishing the false overvaluation of art, in order to save us from the idea that art will save us. Perhaps critical theory is tasked with helping us to expect less of art. At one point in this exchange between Horkheimer and Adorno, Horkheimer says, âThe more eager one is to break the taboo, the more harmless it isâŚ. One must be very down to earth, measured, and considered so that the impression that something or other is not possible does not arise.â [2] What Horkheimer calls for here is a toning down of the rhetoric, because with every moment of melodrama in the effort to cancel the present moment, we render the weight of the present moment insignificant. It becomes the occasion for a spectacular display of pathos, which Horkheimer is trying to resist. Perhaps what we should drive toward, critically, is lower expectations for art, so that we have an opportunity to experience, not our distance from, but our proximity to, what is betterâthough this proximity is also a kind of distance, and what is better remains obscure.
Chris Cutrone: The scholar of Benjaminâs and Adornoâs work, Susan Buck-Morss provided a pithy formulation for defining the tasks of both art and criticism in the modern era: â[Artistsâ] work is to sustain the critical moment of aesthetic experience; our job as critics is to recognize this.â [3] Two aspects of Buck-Morssâs formulation of the work of artists need to be emphasizedââsustaining the critical momentâ and âaesthetic experience.â The subjective experience of the aesthetic is what artists work on, and they do so in order to capture and sustain, or make available, subjectivityâs âcritical moment.â
Adorno, in his 1932 essay âThe Social Situation of Music,â analogized the position of modern art to that of critical social theory: The role of both was to provoke recognition. Adorno further warned that there could be no progress in art without that of society. His posthumously published but unfinished monograph Aesthetic Theory can be considered to have at its center, organizing the entire discussion of the modern experience of art, the theme of the simultaneous necessity and impossibility of art. In this, Adorno was elaborating in the aesthetic realm his thesis in Negative Dialectics, that philosophy and critical theory were both necessary and impossible, simultaneously.
What does it mean to practice art in an epoch of its impossibility and continuing necessity? A clue can be found in Adornoâs claim in Negative Dialectics that âphilosophy lives on because its moment of realization was missed.â[4] Adornoâs treatment of philosophy and art is modeled on Marxâs treatment of capital. The potential for a dialectical historical transformation, in which capital would be simultaneously realized and abolished, became for Adorno the question of what it would mean to simultaneously realize and overcome the aspirations of modern philosophy and art. What would it mean to overcome the necessity that is expressed in modern practices of art? The Hegelian thought figure of artâs attaining to its own concept, while transcending it through a qualitative transformation, was mobilized by Adorno to grasp both the history of modern art and the desire to overcome its practices.
The Hegel scholar Robert Pippin, in his response to the journal Critical Inquiryâs 2003 forum on the current state and potential future for critical theory, described postmodernism as a repetition of the âRomantic recoilâ from modernity. [5] Specifically, Pippin pointed to modern literary and artistic forms as derived from such Romanticism, of which postmodernism was the mere continuation, but in denial of its repetition. And Pippin pointed out that such repetition is in fact a âregression,â because consciousness of the historical condition of the problem had grown worse.
Hegel posed the question of the âendâ of art. He meant by this not the cessation of practices of art, but rather the ability of those practices to make the activity of âSpiritâ appear in a self-contained and self-sufficient manner. While religion had been superseded by art, art had come to be superseded by âphilosophy.â By this, Hegel meant that art needed philosophical interpretation to be able to mean what it meant. Art needed criticism in order to be itself. This was a specifically modern condition for art, which Hegel addressed in a rather optimistic manner, seeing artâs need for criticism as a hallmark of enlightenment rather than a disability or liability.
But Adorno took this Hegelianism with respect to art and turned it from an explanation of artâs historical condition to a critique of those historical conditions. Like Marx who had turned Hegel on his head, or put Hegel back on his feet, Adorno inverted the significance of Hegelâs philosophical observation. Where Hegel had, for instance, regarded modern politics as the realm of reflection on the state, and by extension the self-objectification of civil society in the state, Marx regarded the modern distinction between state and civil society as expressing the pathological necessity of capital, in which the self-contradiction of capital was projected. Adorno similarly addressed the complementary necessities of art and criticism as expressing a self-contradiction in (aesthetic) subjectivity.
As Adorno put it, however, this did not mean that one should aspire to any âreconciliationâ of art and philosophy, nor of theory and practice. Just as Marx critiqued the Left Hegelians for their Romantic desire to merely dissolve the distinction between state and civil society, so too did Marx and Adorno alike regard this separation as the hallmark of freedom. In a late essay, âMarginalia to Theory and Practiceâ (1969), Adorno attacked âRomantic socialismâ for wanting to dissolve the distinction and critical relationship between theory and practice, maintaining that, by contrast with traditional society, the modern separation of theory and practice was âprogressiveâ and emancipatory. So too was the separation in meaning between art, as non-conceptual knowledge, and criticism, informed by theoretical concepts.
Adorno, like Marx, looks forward, not to a return to a pre-modern or pre-capitalist unity of theory and practice, nor to a reconciliation of form and content, as had been the case in traditional culture, but to a qualitative transformation of the modern division of meaning in art and criticism, in which each would be simultaneously realized and abolished as presently practiced. The problem is that, rather than being raised to ever more acute levels, there was already in Adornoâs lifetime a retreat from the productive antagonism, the dialectic of theory and practice, or in this case art and criticism.
Adorno drew upon and sought to further elaborate the approach of his friend and mentor Walter Benjamin, who argued in his 1934 essay âThe Author as Producerâ that no art could be of correct âpolitical tendencyâ unless it was also of good aesthetic quality. [6] Furthermore, Benjamin argued that every great work of art âeither founds or dissolves a genre.â [7] As Benjamin put it, the work of art that fails to teach artists teaches no one. Artists do not âdistributeâ aesthetic experience, but produce it. New art re-works and transforms, retrospectively, the history of art. Benjamin argued that there could be no progress in society without that of art, for necessarily involved in both is the transformation of subjectivity.
The history of modern art, as Benjamin and Adorno recognized, presents a diverse multiplicity of practices, none of which has been able to come to full fruition. Benjamin described this poignantly in his Arcades Project as âliving in hell.â [8] Benjamin and Adornoâs thought-figure for such historical consciousness of modern art comes from Trotsky, who pointed out, in a June 1938 letter to the editors of the American journal Partisan Review, that the modern capitalist epoch displayed the following phenomenon in its historical course:
[N]ew tendencies take on a more and more violent character, alternating between hope and despair. The artistic schools of the [first] few decades [of the 20th century]âcubism, futurism, dadaism, surrealismâfollow each other without reaching a complete development. Art, which is the most complex part of culture, the most sensitive and at the same time the least protected, suffers most from the decline and decay of bourgeois society.[9]
This was because, as Trotsky put it,
The decline of bourgeois society means an intolerable exacerbation of social contradictions, which are transformed inevitably into personal contradictions, calling forth an ever more burning need for a liberating art. Furthermore, a declining capitalism already finds itself completely incapable of offering the minimum conditions for the development of tendencies in art which correspond, however little, to our epochâŚ. The oppressed masses live their own life. Bohemianism offers too limited a social base.[10]
Trotsky said of art that, âa protest against reality, either conscious or unconscious, active or passive, optimistic or pessimistic, always forms part of a really creative piece of work. Every new tendency in art has begun with rebellion.â [11] And not merely rebellion against existing conventions of art, but against the conditions of life in capitalism.
But what, then, would be a âliberating art?â Adorno addresses this in terms of the aspiration for âartistic autonomy,â or the self-justification of aesthetic experience. This is related to how Kant described the experience of the beautiful, in nature or art, as the sympathetic resonance the subject experiences of an object, which thus appears to embody âpurposiveness without purpose,â or a telosâan end-in-itself. Except, for Adorno, this empathy between subject and object in Kantâs account of aesthetic experience is not affirmative, but critical. In Adornoâs account of the modern experience of art, the subject recognizes not the power of experiential capacities and the transformative freedom of the human faculties, but rather their constraint and unfreedom, their self-contradictory and self-undermining powers. The subject experiences not its freedom in self-transformation, but rather the need for transformation in freedom. Adorno emphasized that the autonomy of art, as of the subject, remains under capitalism an aspiration rather than an achieved state. Works of art embody the striving for autonomy that is denied the subject of the modern society of capital, and thus artworks also embody failure. Hence, the history of art furnishes a rich inventory of failed attempts. This is why this history remains unsettled and constantly returns. Modern works of art are necessarily failures, but are nonetheless valuable as embodiments of possibility, of unfulfilled potential.
The constrained possibilities embodied in modern art are, according to Benjaminâs formulation, approached by the subject with a combination of âdesire and fear.â Modern artworks embody not only human but âinhumanâ potentialsâthat is, the possibilities for the qualitative transformation of humanity, which we regard with desire and fear. They thus have simultaneously utopian and dystopian aspects. Modern artworks are as ambivalent as the historical conditions they refract in themselves, âprismatically.â But it is in such ambivalence that art instantiates freedom. It is the task of theory, or critique, to register the non-conceptual while attempting to bring it within the range of concepts. As Adorno put it, the aspiration of modern art is to âproduce something without knowing what it is.â [12] In so doing, art acts not only on the future, but also on history.
Modern artworks find inspiration in art history. This is the potentially emancipatory character of repetition. Artists are motivated by art history to re-attain lost moments by achieving them again, but differently. Artists produce new works that, in their newness, unlock the potentials of past art, allowing us to re-experience history. But this work on history is not without its dangers. As Benjamin put it, âeven the dead are not safeâ from the ambivalent âprogressâ of history, because this history unfolds in capital as a âmounting catastrophe.â [13] The history of modern art, like that of capital more generally, furnishes a compendium of ruins. The simultaneously progressive and regressive dynamics of history find their purchase in this: that historical forms of experience and consciousness inform present practices, for better or worse. It is the work of critique to attempt to better inform, through greater consciousness, the inevitable repetition in the continuing practices of art, and thus attempt to overcome the worst effects of the regression involved in such practices.
In the Hegelian sense adopted by both Marx and Adorno, the greater consciousness of freedom is the only available path for freedomâs possible realization. Consciousness is tasked to recognize the potential that is its own condition of possibility. This is why Adorno and Benjamin addressed works of art as forms of consciousness. Art can be ideological or it can enlighten, provoking consciousness to push itself further.
The dialectic of art and criticism is necessary for the vitality of art. The self-abnegation of criticism, on the other handâthe disenchantment of consciousness that characterized âpostmodernismââhas clearly demonstrated the barrenness of such abdication of responsibility on the part of critics and theorists more so than artists, who were thus left at the mercy of poor, unclarified concepts. The challenge posed by modern critical-theoretical approaches to art has been warded off rather than engaged and pushed further.
Artistsâ work continues to demand critical recognition, whether the critics recognize this or not. What such critical recognition of the work of history taken up by art would mean is what Marxist aesthetic theorists like Adorno and Benjamin pursued, and from whose efforts we can and indeed must learn. For a new condition of art has not been attained, but only an old set of conditions repeated, without their repetition being properly recognized. The relation between art and social modernity, or capital, continues to task both art and theory. Art is not merely conditioned by, but is itself an instance of the modern society of capital. But, like society, for art to progress, theory must do its work.
Panelistsâ responses
LG: Chris, you seemed to read Adornoâs distinction between regression and progression as if progress is simply the bit we want, but it seems to me that Adornoâs point was that the progressive and the regressive are two sides of the same coin, both of which lead to catastrophe.
CC:In Benjamin and Adornoâs philosophy of history, which they are deriving from Marx, capital is simultaneously progressive and regressive. Capital progresses through a kind of recursive movement, and so they understand overcoming capital as also completing capital. Benjamin and Adorno take up the concept of Aufhebungâthe sublation, the realization through negation, or the self-overcomingâto articulate this âcompletion.â Art, far from being outside capital, is part and parcel of capitalâs historical movement. Art moves historically through a âprogress,â if you will, of progress and regressâlike capital. Of course, this raises the question of emancipation. Colloquially, progress is usually thought of in these terms: âAre we making progress? Is progress progress? Or, is it actually progress in domination, in which case it is not progress?â I feel that an unfamiliar aspect of Benjamin and Adornoâs thought is an idea they take from Marx, which complicates the relationship between progress and regress: Capital moves through a process of the discontents capital itself produces. The opposition to capital that these discontents engender form the basis for the reconstitution of capital in a new form, though there are important differences in the form these discontents take. You can have a system of discontents that advances capital in one way, or in a completely different way.
Goebbels touring a Nazi exhibition of "degenerate" modernist art, Berlin, 1937
To take perhaps the most dramatic example, Iâm sure we are familiar with the anti-totalitarian idea that communism and fascism are simply two sides of the same coin. In a way, for Benjamin and Adorno, fascism was the necessary doppelgänger of communism, in that both communism and fascism had an ambivalent relationship to the progress and regress of capital. Nevertheless, one could distinguish between communism and fascism, as Benjamin and Adorno themselves did. One could distinguish between how the contradiction of capital is being pushed through communism versus the way it was being pushed, in a more obscure manner, through fascism. One salient point here would be Wilhelm Reichâs argument, in âIdeology as a Material Forceâ (1933), that Marxists had failed to recognize the progressive character of fascism, which of course did not mean that Reich found fascism âprogressive.â Rather, Reich meant that fascists were more in tune with the ambivalent progress and regress of capital than the Marxists were. The Marxists, in a sense, were helpless in the face of the progress of capitalâtherefore, the ambivalent progress of capital took the form of fascism rather than communism in Germany.
GH: Of course, after 1848, modernity becomes not the solution, but the problem. However, I resist a certain version of the argument which posits that, since modernity is the problem, there must be something which is not modernity that provides, if not the solution, at least the answer. The full secularization of history entails that there is nothing outside history. So I think modernity has to be the answer to the problem it raises. In my remarks I held up what I am calling âanother modernity,â which I acknowledge to be only a sort of marker. It is possible we may have to make out this other modernity by figuring out, again, the difference between communism and fascism, though I find this possibility a bit dreadful. However, this would mean withdrawing from the language of disaster and catastropheâa withdrawal I would justify on the basis of Adornoâs resistance to pessimism. Pessimism is the conviction that things will inevitably get worse. But, for Adorno, it is the dark gift of history that this is false. The only gift of having survived 1945 is the dead certainty that things cannot get any worse. From this anti-pessimistic thought, I think there must emerge something like an anti-catastrophic line of thinking.
JB: You would have to think past Adorno to do that, though. I keep pointing back to early modern art, and to what I have called the âsecular sacralizationâ of the everyday. I do this because one of the things Adorno thematized, but did not see in the art he loved, was the burden of giving everyday life the intensity and fullness of satisfactions once found in religious forms of life. Adorno and Benjamin were overly impressed by the sacred, or the messianic, and this was their worst temptation. If they were alive now, I fear they would be doing political theology, which is the worst thing to happen in political thought since Carl Schmitt. As I see it, Adornoâs anti-representationalism ultimately led him to think of what was utopian in distorted ways.
Bartolomeo Manfredi, Cupid Chastised (1613)
CC: Your critique of Benjamin and Adorno points to the difference between understanding modernity as post-Renaissance, versus understanding modernity as post-1848. Art after 1848 is about disenchantment, secularization, and sacralization of the everyday, but in a fundamentally different way than the art from the Renaissance period through the Romantic period, up until the time of Hegel. This difference hinges on the difference between Kant and Hegel, on the one hand, and Marx, on the other, which should not be understood simply as a difference in thinking. Rather, it is a matter of the real historical difference between the pre-1848 and post-1848 world, which makes it necessary to pose quite differently the question of Enlightenment, disenchantment, desacralization, and resacralization.
Jay, I think you have posed art as occupying a space outside capital, outside modernity, representing a romantic response to the instrumentalization of the world. I believe there were elements of this in Lydiaâs remarks as well. In contrast, I think Adorno and Benjamin challenge us to see how art also becomes instrumental reason, in the sense that art is an instrument of capital. It is not as though there is reason that is used instrumentally, and reason that is not used instrumentally. Rather, reason becomes instrumentalized by capital so that the Enlightenment becomes a more ambiguous phenomenon after 1848. There is a reversal of means and ends after 1848 such that one can no longer understand capital as the advance of Enlightenment, but can only see the Enlightenment as the means of capital. Rather than ânon-conceptual knowledge,â Adorno and Benjamin see art as part of the reason of capital, but also, therefore, as bearing the ambivalence of capital and potentially making that ambivalence recognizable.
A similar difficulty, which came up in Greggâs presentation, is getting beyond an understanding of emancipation in terms of cracks or fragments in society. This conception of emancipation traces back to a kind of Romantic Counter-Enlightenment, from which Marx and, thus, Benjamin and Adorno, would have to be distinguished. I take great issue with the claim that Adorno and Benjamin were enchanted by the sacred. Like Hegel, they were tasked with understanding continuity and change in the desacralization of the world. Hegel had to account for the ways that religious metaphysics remain with us in spite of, and even through, the disenchantment of the world. Kant and Hegel understood this in the sense that religion was a prior form of reason, but I do not think they argue for a Romantic re-enchantment of the sacred against the disenchanted world. Marx, Benjamin, and Adorno certainly do not.
LG:This treats Adorno and Benjamin as if they are producing a theory of society or a theory of art in a traditional senseâthat is, taking a step back, coming up with a theory, and then imposing it upon society, art, or capitalism. What Adorno and Benjamin share in their writing is precisely this turning back on themselves to ask how, actually, does one write about this. They always turn back on the structures of thought and writing.
CC:I donât think I implied that Adorno and Benjamin felt they could step outside their object of critique. They consider their own thinking symptomatic of capital, which means that they understand their own opposition to capital as itself being a symptom of capital. In this sense the only difference they could establish between their own thinking and othersâ was the measure of self-clarification and self-awareness they achieved, which is an issue of the philosophy of history. There is a difficulty in understanding what opposition to capitalism means. The usual approach is to look at how capital breaks downâto look for apparent cracks, which provide the grounds for âresistance.â This is the typical language of the Left in the late 20th century, down to the present. In contrast, Benjamin and Adorno follow from Marx in recognizing that it is not the case that capital moves by a smooth logic, interrupted by moments of collapse representing something outside of capital. Rather, part of what makes capital an âalienatedâ logic is that it is no logic at all; it reproduces itself not in spite of, but precisely through breakdown, resistance, discontents, and a host of contingent or âspontaneousâ factors.
There is an undigested Romantic legacy, in the wake of 1789, of positioning oneself, along with all humanity, under the treads of history. This tends toward a one-sided understanding of capital as instrumental reason, whereas in fact Adorno and Benjamin, like Marx and Hegel, are actually trying to overcome a Romantic rejection of modernity. Trying not to fall on one side of that Romantic rejection is hard without seeming to speak from some kind of objective view outside of the phenomenon, but I think that is primarily an issue of style and presentation.
Q & A
Q: In your comments, Gregg, you said that returning to the distinction between fascism and communism seemed dreadful. But what hope for the redemptive power of art, or even of thought itself, exists outside of the hope for socialism, a movement that the revolutionary Marxist tradition understood as the attempt, for the first time, to put social relations under the dominion of social consciousness?
GH: My expression of despair was only at the prospect of having to frame the problem that way. The articulation of socialism necessarily involves the retrieval of the emancipatory moment of âactually existing socialism.â But what must we return to in order to retrieve this emancipatory moment? I donât have an answer to that, but if there is an answer afoot, we need to hear it. Several times in the last month I have heard the following remarkable thoughtâand when I say remarkable I simply mean I want to know moreâthat Khrushchev represented an actual breakthrough, from which we might retrieve a different practice of communism. That is the kind of thought that I do not know how to make use of, even in trying to think about what you and I share, which is a view of socialism as the horizon of emancipatory political practice.
Q: Jay, in your remarks you have described our culture as being problematic in its relation to art, which I took to mean that we have a âwrong culture.â What do you mean by this?
JB: âWrong cultureâ would be optimistic. I am interested in how the culture question has lapsed. It was standard even in the 1960s to articulate how system integration, the way in which various institutions make capital reproduction possible, required social integration, whereby people would have harmonious beliefs, values, and ideals. At a certain moment, capital recognized that this was not strictly necessity, and that people did not actually need a whole lot of ideological forming. My claim is that an image of radical culture was parasitic on the idea that there was a dominant culture. There is no longer a coherent dominant culture against which to mount a critique that could push forward the formation of an alternative political will. This is what requires us to rethink the notion of critique.
CC: I think the world appears to lack a common culture holding the system together because the common culture that exists is poorly recognized. Counterintuitively, I think there are a great deal of assumptions shared by Islamic fundamentalists, Christian fundamentalists, postmodern bohemians, and so on, but these common assumptions go unrecognized and unremarked. These assumptions have become ideology in a classic sense. The task would be provoking recognition of this commonality in order to make legible the unity of the opposites in our world, rather than thinking that we live in some sort of cultural plurality that resists any attempt to understand it as a totality. That this appears to be the case is simply an artifact of our failure to understand it. One could just as well make a plausible argument, from the standpoint of the 19th century, that the world was being held together without a hegemonic culture in 1830, 1848, or 1870. The task would be to find the hegemonic culture that is there, but which is completely naturalized.
LG:But are we talking here about culture with a small C, or Kultur with a capital K?
GH: I had a version of that question in mind. In a review of the Anselm Kiefer art show that appeared recently in the New York Times, Roberta Smith hauled out of the dustbin of history a critical concept you almost never see anymore: She referred to Kiefer as a âmiddlebrow painter.â [14] The concept seemed archaic to me. Even though it was clearly meant as a slander, âmiddlebrowâ had none of the negative charge it used to have. Suddenly there was, in the concept of middlebrow, a whiff of democracy. It sounded optimistic, as though it is something to aspire to. So, I donât mean to imply by this that Anselm Kiefer is a great painter or anything, but reading this review of his work suggested to me that, whatever might come to count as a common culture, it is definitely not going to be culture with a capital Kâit is not going to be a matter of cultivation, in that sense.
JB: With respect to what I am calling the breakdown or the loss of culture, I am thinking about what goes on, for instance, in Philip Rothâs novel American Pastoral, which captures how ideality or hopefulness is no longer available as something that could be transformative. It is not simply âideology,â or a series of false beliefs, that make a culture, even with a small C. There has to be a notion of ideality. That notion, which appeared in Germany under the phrase âcritique of pure cynicism,â really has its American moment now, and it is that difficulty I was pointing to.
LG: From that, it follows that the real confrontation now would not be between critical theory and capital, directly, but between critical theory and democracy. This is really where the issue is for politics.
Stravinsky, The Rite of Spring (1913)
CC: The word I want to introduce into the discussion is âkitsch.â Maybe we now have kitsch culture and kitsch politics. There are interesting parallels between Clement Greenberg and Benjamin and Adorno. It is interesting that Greenberg foregrounds the question of democracy by treating avant-garde and kitsch as symptoms of democracy. But in this way Greenberg also raises the question of the relationship between capital and democracy. The culture industry was a concept that Adorno meant to embrace high art as well. Schoenberg and Stravinsky were also a part of the culture industry. In that respect I think one has to see how avant-garde and kitsch practices subsist on a common ground and how Schoenberg and Stravinsky are two sides of the same coin. Adorno certainly was not just a partisan for Schoenberg over Stravinsky, which is how Adorno is usually read.
Q: A few of you tonight have touched upon the concept that an artwork is not successful unless critique is doing its job. But what is critiqueâs job description, so to speak, in relation to art today? And what should it be?
Beethoven, Symphony 5 (1804â08), I. Allegro con brio
LG:It is not that art will not function unless critique does its job, but that critique is this ongoing process of rethinking what is being asserted. One of the reasons Adorno admired Schoenberg was that he thought you could not reduce Schoenberg to whistling, and this meant that in some way Schoenberg was not assimilable by the cultureâin its form it would always rub up against culture. If you understood what it was that made Schoenberg so difficult and so unassimilable, so unwhistleable, you could perhaps understand again what was amazing about a Beethoven symphony or even, in my view, a Puccini opera like La Bohème. This is where I think even Adorno got himself wrong, in that he made too many blanket statements about the kind of music that was subsumable by this society. The real resistant potential is to try and listen to Puccini as a great composer, not to listen to Puccini as a composer under the conditions of commodification.
Puccini, La bohème (1896), O soave fanciulla
CC:I donât think Schoenberg was unassimilableâif anything, his work was assimilated. But I also do not think that Adorno thought Schoenberg was unassimilable, and so I donât think unassimilability is what Adorno valued in Schoenberg. Adorno talks about Schoenberg and the culture industry in terms of âthe inevitableâ versus âthe incomprehensible,â as a sort of antinomy within a historical moment of the culture industry. Inevitability and incomprehensibility are, to Adorno, two aspects of the same thing. The operation of capital is not comprehensible by individuals but it is clearly socially assimilable. In this sense, capital is inevitable and incomprehensible. What Adorno valued about Schoenberg was that, in Schoenberg, you cannot escape that simultaneous inevitability and incomprehensibility as easily as you can escape it by putting on Puccini, for instance, or Stravinsky, who gives you the comprehensible sublime.
Q: In your comments, Jay, you have proposed the everyday as a different route to go besides the messianic or sacred. But how is the everyday supposed to get beyond all the problems you have raised with shareability, for instance? Doesnât everydayness run into all the same problems we run into with culture?
Schoenberg, Erwartung/Expectation (1909)
JB: I think the everyday has always been the question for modern art. Whatever we might mean by modernity, it has to be the thought of a wholly secular form of life. What we donât know is what shareability is going to look like. That is something art practices will need to invent, in the sense of figuring out, as they go along, variations on this idea of immanent sharebility, which comes out of the practice itself and yet remains a practice. What makes art particular, at least for me, is that it bears this burden.
Q: I think the theme of the failure of postmodernism to advance historical consciousness has not been fully fleshed out. What is it about how postmodernism saw art that has left us with less access to historical self-awareness or consciousness?
CC:There have been assumed but, unfortunately, naturalized and invisible categories we have used in discussing art and critique, and I think the invisibility of these categories points to problems of historical consciousness. In a sense, we necessarily read figures like Adorno or Benjaminâor, as I pointed out before, Marxâin terms of categories that they themselves wanted to transcend. One thinks of how the classic postmodernist art critics, the October group, separated the avant-garde from modernism. I do not think critics like Benjamin and Adorno, or Clement Greenberg for that matter, would have accepted the opposition of the avant-garde to modernism in the way that postmodern critics superimpose on the history of modern art. Similarly, the relationship between Romanticism and modernism has been a troubled one throughout our discussion. To the degree there has been a critique of Adorno and Benjamin, the critique was of a residual Romanticism they purportedly exhibit. That they appear to retain a Romantic understanding of modernity is itself a signal of how much influence postmodernism, and particularly postmodern art criticism, has exerted on how we think about modernism. Thus, for instance, modernist art becomes a kind of secular religion. A return to these figures as points of referenceâespecially Adorno, as someone who anticipated but preceded emphatic postmodernism in art criticismâis salient today precisely to the extent it allows us to estrange ourselves from these kinds of rhetorics. We should resist the notion of Adorno and Benjamin as mandarin intellectuals and holdover Romantics, and we should resist a Romantic conception of modernism, whether we use that term positively or negatively. I say this in hopes of at least pointing to how our discussion bears the damage that has been done by the way we talk about art after postmodernism. Our discussion bears the traces of an abdication of criticism over at least the last 40 years, since Adornoâs time. In all the ways we have talked about the modern work of artâin terms of whether modernism is finished or unfinished, how it subsists, how and why it is still necessary, and so onâI think we have been forced to concede something. | §
Originally published in The Platypus Review #31 (January 2011). Transcribed by Andony Melathopoulos
1. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, âTowards a New Manifesto?â New Left Review 65 (September-October 2010). This document is available in full at <http://www.newleftreview.org/?view=2860>.
The scholar of Benjamin and Adornoâs work Susan Buck-Morss, in her response to the October art journalâs 1996 Visual Culture Questionnaire, provided a pithy formulation for defining the tasks of both art and criticism in the modern era, â[Artistsâ] work is to sustain the critical moment of aesthetic experience; our job as critics is to recognize this.â Two aspects of Buck-Morssâs formulation of the work of artists need to be emphasized, âsustaining the critical momentâ and âaesthetic experience.â The subjective experience of the aesthetic is what artists work on. And they do so in order to capture and sustain, or make available, subjectivityâs âcritical moment.â
Adorno, in his 1932 essay on âThe Social Situation of Music,â analogized the position of modern art to that of critical social theory. The role of both was to provoke recognition. Furthermore, Adorno warned that there can be no progress in art without that of society. Adornoâs posthumously published but unfinished monograph Aesthetic Theory can be considered to have a central theme organizing all its discussion of the modern experience of art, the simultaneous necessity and impossibility of art. In this, Adorno was elaborating in the aesthetic realm his thesis in Negative Dialectics, the simultaneous necessity and impossibility of philosophy and critical theory. What does it mean to practice art in an epoch of its simultaneous continuing necessity and impossibility? A clue can be found in Adornoâs claim in Negative Dialectics, that âphilosophy lives on because its moment of realization was missed.â
Philosophy of art
Adornoâs treatment of philosophy and art are modeled on Marxâs treatment of capital. The potential for a dialectical historical transformation, in which capital would be simultaneously realized and abolished, became for Adorno the question of what it would mean to simultaneously realize and overcome the aspirations of modern philosophy and art. What would it mean to overcome the necessity that is expressed in modern practices of art? The Hegelian thought-figure of artâs attaining to its own concept while transcending it, through a qualitative transformation, was mobilized by Adorno to grasp both the history of modern art and the desire to overcome its practices.
The Hegel scholar Robert Pippin, in his response to the 2003 Critical Inquiry journalâs forum on the current state and potential future for critical theory, described postmodernism as a repetition of the âRomantic recoilâ from modernity. Specifically, Pippin pointed to modern literary and artistic forms as derived from such Romanticism, of which postmodernism was the mere continuation, but in denial of its repetition. But Pippin also pointed out that such repetition is in fact a âregression,â because consciousness of the historical condition of the problem had grown worse.
Hegel had posed the question of the âendâ of art. But Hegel meant by this not the cessation of practices of art, but rather their ability to make the activity of âSpiritâ appear in a self-contained manner. While religion had been superseded by art, art had come to be superseded by âphilosophy.â What did Hegel mean by this? Nothing but that art needed philosophical interpretation to be able to mean what it meant. Art needed criticism in order to be itself. This was a specifically modern condition for art, which Hegel addressed in a rather optimistic manner, seeing such need for criticism in art as a hallmark of enlightenment rather than a disability of art.
But Adorno took this Hegelianism of art and turned it, from a historical explanation of its condition, into a critique of such circumstances of history. Like Marx who had turned Hegel âon his head,â or put Hegel back âon his feet,â Adorno inverted the significance of Hegelâs philosophical observation. Where Hegel had, for instance, regarded modern politics as the realm of reflection on, the self-objectification of civil society in the state, Marx regarded the modern state and civil society distinction as expressing the pathological necessity of capital, in which the self-contradiction of capital was projected. Adorno similarly addressed the complementary necessities of art and criticism, as expressing a self-contradiction in (aesthetic) subjectivity.
As Adorno put it, however, this did not mean that one should aspire to a âreconciliationâ of art and philosophy or theory. Just as Marx critiqued the Left Hegelians for their Romantic desire to dissolve the distinction between state and âcivilâ society, the separation was regarded, by Marx and Adorno alike, as the hallmark of freedom. In a late essay, the âMarginalia on Theory and Practiceâ (1969), Adorno attacked âRomantic socialismâ for wanting to dissolve the distinction and critical relationship between theory and practice, maintaining that, by contrast with traditional society, the modern separation of theory and practice was âprogressiveâ and emancipatory. So was the separation in meaning between art, as ânon-conceptual knowledge,â and criticism, informed by âtheoreticalâ concepts.
Artistic modernism
So Adorno, like Marx, looked forward, not to a return to a pre-modern or pre-capitalist unity of theory and practice and reconciliation of form and content, as had been the case in traditional culture, but a qualitative transformation of the modern division of meaning in art and criticism, in which each would be simultaneously realized and abolished, as presently practiced. The problem is that, rather than being raised to ever more acute levels, already in Adornoâs time there was a retreat from the productive antagonism, the dialectic of theory and practice, or art and criticism.
Adorno drew upon and sought to further elaborate the approach of his friend and mentor Walter Benjamin, who argued, in his 1934 essay âThe Author as Producer,â that no art could be of correct political âtendencyâ unless it was also of good aesthetic âquality.â Furthermore, Benjamin argued that every great work of art âeither founds or dissolves a genre.â As Benjamin put it, the work of art that fails to teach artists teaches no one. Artists do not âdistributeâ aesthetic experience but produce it. New art re-works and transforms, retrospectively, the history of art. Benjamin argued that there can be progress in society without that of art, for necessarily involved in both is the transformation of subjectivity.
Politics of art
The history of modern art, as Benjamin and Adorno recognized, presents a diverse multiplicity of practices, none of which have been able to come to full fruition. Benjamin described this poignantly in his Arcades Project as âliving in hell.â Benjamin and Adornoâs thought-figure for such historical consciousness of modern art comes from Trotsky, who pointed out, in a 1938 letter to the editors of the American journal Partisan Review, that the modern capitalist epoch displayed the following phenomenon in its historical course:
[N]ew tendencies take on a more and more violent character, alternating between hope and despair. The artistic schools of the [first] few decades [of the 20th century] â cubism, futurism, dadaism, surrealism â follow each other without reaching a complete development. Art, which is the most complex part of culture, the most sensitive and at the same time the least protected, suffers most from the decline and decay of bourgeois society.
This was because, as Trotsky put it,
The decline of bourgeois society means an intolerable exacerbation of social contradictions, which are transformed inevitably into personal contradictions, calling forth an ever more burning need for a liberating art. Furthermore, a declining capitalism already finds itself completely incapable of offering the minimum conditions for the development of tendencies in art which correspond, however little, to our epoch. . . . The oppressed masses live their own life. Bohemianism offers too limited a social base.
Trotsky said of art that, âa protest against reality, either conscious or unconscious, active or passive, optimistic or pessimistic, always forms part of a really creative piece of work. Every new tendency in art has begun with rebellion.â And not merely rebellion against existing conventions of art, but the greater conditions for life in capitalist modernity.
So, what would be a âliberating art?â Adorno addresses this in terms of the aspiration for âartistic autonomy,â or the self-justification of aesthetic experience. This is related to how Kant had described the experience of the beautiful, in nature or art, as the sympathetic resonance the subject experiences of an object, which thus appears to embody âpurposiveness without purpose,â or a telos, an end-in-itself. Except, for Adorno, this empathy between subject and object in Kantâs account of aesthetic experience, is not to be affirmative but critical. In Adornoâs account of the modern experience of art, the subject recognizes, not the power of experiential capacities, and the transformative freedom of the human faculties, but rather their constraint and unfreedom, their self-contradictory and self-undermining powers. The subject experiences not its freedom in self-transformation, but rather the need for transformation in freedom. Adorno emphasized that the autonomy of art, as of the subject, remains, under capitalism, an aspiration rather than an achieved state. Works of art embody the striving for autonomy that is denied the subject of the modern society of capital, and thus also embody failure. Hence, the history of art furnishes a rich inventory of failed attempts. This is why its history is unsettled and constantly returns. Modern works of art are necessarily failures, but are nonetheless valuable as embodiments of possibility, of unfulfilled potential.
The constrained possibilities embodied in modern art are, according to Benjaminâs formulation, approached by the subject with a combination of âdesire and fear.â Modern artworks embody not only human but âinhumanâ potentials, or, the possibilities for the qualitative transformation of humanity. They thus have simultaneously utopian and dystopian aspects. Modern artworks are as ambivalent as the historical conditions they refract in themselves, âprismatically.â But it is in such ambivalence that art instantiates freedom. It is the task of theory, or critique, to register and attempt to bring the non-conceptual within the range of concepts. As Adorno put it, the aspiration of modern art is to âproduce something without knowing what it is.â In so doing, art acts not only on the future, but also on history.
Art history
Modern artworks find inspiration in art history. This is the potentially emancipatory character of repetition. Artists are motivated by art history to re-attain lost moments by achieving them again, but differently. Artists produce new works that, in their newness, unlock the potentials of past art, allowing us to re-experience history. But this work on history is not without its dangers. As Benjamin put it, âeven the dead are not safeâ from the ambivalent âprogressâ of history, which unfolds in capital as a âmounting catastrophe.â The history of modern art, like that of capital more generally, furnishes a compendium of ruins. The simultaneously progressive and regressive dynamics of history find their purchase in this, that historical forms of experience and consciousness inform present practices, for better or worse. It is the work of critique to attempt to better inform, through greater consciousness, the inevitable repetition in the continuing practices of art, and thus attempt to overcome the worst effects of the regression involved in such practices.
In the Hegelian sense adopted by both Marx and Adorno, the greater consciousness of freedom is the only available path for freedomâs possible realization. Consciousness is tasked to recognize the potential that is its own condition of possibility. This is why Adorno and Benjamin addressed works of art as forms of consciousness. Art can be ideological or it can enlighten, provoking consciousness to push itself further.
The dialectic of art and criticism is necessary for the vitality of art. The self-abnegation of criticism, the disenchantment of consciousness that characterized âpostmodernismâ has clearly demonstrated the barrenness of such abdication of responsibility, on the part of critics and theorists even more than artists, who were thus left at the mercy of poor, unclarified concepts. The challenge posed by modern critical-theoretical approaches to art have been warded off rather than engaged and pushed further.
Artistsâ work continues to demand critical recognition, whether the âcriticsâ recognize this or not. What such critical recognition, of the work of history taken up by art, would mean is what Marxist critical aesthetic theorists like Adorno and Benjamin pursued, and from whose efforts we can and indeed must learn. For a new condition of art has not been attained, but only an old set of conditions repeated, however without their being properly recognized. The relation between art and social modernity, or capital, continues to task both art and theory. Art is not merely conditioned by, but is itself an instance of the modern society of capital. But, like society, for art to progress, theory must do its work. | §
A response to Alain Badiouâs âcommunist hypothesisâ
Chris Cutrone
Against Badiou
ALAIN BADIOU’S RECENT BOOK (2010) is titled with the phrase promoted by his and Slavoj Ĺ˝iĹžekâs work for the last few years, âthe communist hypothesis.â[1] This is also the title of the Badiouâs 2008 essay in New Left Review[2]on the historical significance of the 2007 election of Nicolas Sarkozy to the French Presidency.[3] There, Badiou explains his approach to communism as follows:
What is the communist hypothesis? In its generic sense, given in its canonic Manifesto, âcommunistâ means, first, that the logic of class â the fundamental subordination of labour to a dominant class, the arrangement that has persisted since Antiquity â is not inevitable; it can be overcome. The communist hypothesis is that a different collective organization is practicable, one that will eliminate the inequality of wealth and even the division of labour. The private appropriation of massive fortunes and their transmission by inheritance will disappear. The existence of a coercive state, separate from civil society, will no longer appear a necessity: a long process of reorganization based on a free association of producers will see it withering away.[4]
Badiou goes on to state that,
As a pure Idea of equality, the communist hypothesis has no doubt existed since the beginnings of the state. As soon as mass action opposes state coercion in the name of egalitarian justice, rudiments or fragments of the hypothesis start to appear. Popular revolts â the slaves led by Spartacus, the peasants led by MĂźntzer â might be identified as practical examples of this âcommunist invariant.â With the French Revolution, the communist hypothesis then inaugurates the epoch of political modernity.[5]
Badiou thus establishes âcommunismâ as the perennial counter-current to civilization throughout its history.
Badiou divides what he calls the modern history of the âcommunist hypothesisâ into two broad periods, or âsequences,â from 1792â1871 and from 1917â76. The first, from Year One of the revolutionary French Republic through the defeat of the Paris Commune, Badiou describes as the âsetting in place of the communist hypothesis.â The second, from the October 1917 Revolution in Russia to Maoâs death and the end of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China, Badiou calls the sequence of âpreliminary attempts at . . . [the] realization [of the communist hypothesis].â[6]
The two periods remaining in this historical trajectory sketched by Badiou, 1871â1917 and 1976 to the present, Badiou describes as âintervalsâ in which âthe communist hypothesis was declared to be untenable,â âwith the adversary in the ascendant.â[7]
But the period from 1871â1917 saw the massive growth and development of Marxism (alongside and indeed bound up with the last great flowering of bourgeois society and culture in the Belle Ăpoque[8]), and culminated in the crisis of war and revolution, which Badiouâs account avoids â or, more precisely, evades. That is, this period raises the question of Marxism as such, and its significance in history.
The Marxist hypothesis
A very different set of historical periodizations, and hence a different history, focused on other developments, might be opposed to Badiouâs. Counter to Badiouâs âcommunist hypothesis,â which reaches back to the origins of the state in the birth of civilization millennia ago, a âMarxist hypothesisâ would seek to grasp the history of the specifically modern society of capital, the different historical phases of capital as characterized by Marxâs and other Marxistsâ accounts, beginning in the mid-19th century. But, as the Nietzsche scholar Peter Preuss put it, âthe 19th century had discovered history and all subsequent inquiry and education bore the stamp of this discovery. This was not simply the discovery of a set of facts about the past but the discovery of the historicity of man.â[9]
Marx is the central figure in developing the critical recognition of history as an invention of the 19th century.[10] (The other names associated with this consciousness of history are Hegel and Nietzsche; relating these three thinkers is a deep problem, long pondered by Marxists.[11])
The Marxist hypothesis is based on Marxâs theoretical and political engagement with the problem he articulated throughout his life, from the Communist Manifesto to Capital, and includes the political thought and action inspired by and seeking to follow and develop upon Marx. This problem is the historical specificity of capital â and hence of history itself. For the Marxist hypothesis is that capital is the source of what Kant called âuniversal history.â[12]
By contrast with Badiouâs history of the âcommunist hypothesis,â a history of the âMarxist hypothesisâ will be complicated, layered, not quite linear, and non-evental. It is divided into the different periods in the history of Marxism: from 1848â95, the publication of Marx and Engelsâs Communist Manifesto to Engelsâs death, to 1914â19, the crisis of Marxism in war and revolution; and from 1923â40, post-Bolshevik Marxism, to 1968â89, the âNew Leftâ and the collapse of âCommunism.â These are periods in the history of Marxism, which are conceived as the history of what Marx called âcapital.â This is the history of capital and its potential overcoming, as expressed in the history of Marxism.[13]
Such history is motivated by the need for what Karl Korsch called, in his 1923 essay âMarxism and Philosophy,â the historical-materialist analysis and critique of Marxism itself, or a Marxist history and theory of Marxism.[14] This would be a history of the emergence, crisis, and decline of Marxism as expressing the possibility of getting beyond capital, as Marx and the best Marxists understood this. Today, as opposed to Korschâs time in 1923, this would include consideration of the possibility that the potential Marxism expressed missed its chance, and has carried on only in a degenerate, spectral way, until passing effectively into history. That such an account is possible at all is what motivates the fundamental âhypothesisâ of Marxism, or the Marxist hypothesis â the hypothesis that Marxism, as a perspective and politics, could be the vital nerve center of modern history. For Marxism is the grandest of all Grand Narratives of history, with reason. Today, the question is what was Marxism?
For most Marxists in the 20th century (and hence also for Badiou), the period of Marxism from 1871â1917, which saw the foundation and growth of the parties of the Second International, was the era of ârevisionism,â in which Marxist revolutionary politics was swamped by reformism. But this was also the period of the struggle against the reformist revision of Marxism by Marx and Engelsâs epigones, such as Bebel, Bernstein, Kautsky, and Plekhanov. This struggle against reformism was conducted by the students of these very same disciples of Marx, and involved a complex change, itself an important historical transition, in which the students were disappointed by and came to surpass their teachers.[15]
The greatest achievement of the struggle against reformism in the Second International was the Bolshevik leadership of the October Revolution, followed by the (however abortive) revolutions in Germany, Hungary and Italy, and the establishment of the Third âCommunistâ International.[16] The world crisis of war and revolution 1914â19 should be regarded properly as the GĂśtterdämmerung of Marxism, which raised the crisis of capital to the realm of politics, in a way not seen before or since. The crisis of Marxism 1914â19 was a civil war among Marxists. On one side, the younger generation of radicals that had risen in and ultimately split the Second International and established the Third International, most prominently Lenin, Luxemburg, and Trotsky, led the greatest attempt to change the world in history. They regarded their division in Marxism as expressing the necessity of human emancipation.[17] That their attempt must be judged today a failure does not alter its profound â and profoundly enigmatic â character.[18]
The stakes of the Revolution attempted by the Second International radicals, inspired by Marx, cannot be overestimated. For Marx and his followers, the epoch of capital was both the culmination of history and marked the potential end of pre-history and the true beginning of human history, in communism.[19] As Walter Benjamin put it, âhumanity is preparing to outlive culture, if need beâ[20] â that is, to survive civilization, as it has been lived for an eon.[21]
The specter of Marx
While Marx and Engels had written of the âspecterâ of communism, today it is the memory of Marx that haunts the world. This difference is important to register: Marx and Engels could count on a political movement â communism â that they sought to clarify and raise to self-consciousness of its historical significance. Today, by contrast, we need to remember not the historical political movement so much as the form of critical consciousness given expression in Marxism. This must be traced back to the thought and political action of Marx himself.
If Marx is mistaken for an affirmer and promulgator of âcommunismâ as opposed to what he actually was, its most incisive critic (from within), we risk forgetting the most important if fragile achievement of history: the consciousness of potential in capital. As Marx wrote early on, in an 1843 letter to Arnold Ruge that called for the âruthless criticism of everything existing,â âCommunism is a dogmatic abstraction and . . . only a particular manifestation of the humanistic principle and is infected by its opposite, private property.â[22]
The potential for emancipated humanity expressed in communism that Marx recognized in the modern history of capital is not assimilable without remainder to pre- or non-Marxian socialism. Marxâs thought and politics are not continuous with the Spartacus slave revolt against Rome or the teachings of the Apostles â or with the radical egalitarianism of the Protestants or the Jacobins. As Marx put it, âCommunism is the necessary form and the dynamic principle of the immediate future, but communism as such is not the goal of human development, the form of human society.â[23] Communism, as a form of discontent in capital, thus demanded critical clarification of its own meaning, and not one-sided endorsement. For Marx thought that communism was a means and not an end in itself.
So what does it mean that, today, we continue, politically, to have âcommunismâ â in Badiouâs sense of demands for âradical democratic equalityâ â but not âMarxism?â Badiouâs periodization of the history of modern communism in the history of civilization dissolves Marxism into one of its constituent parts â or at least submerges it in this history. But Marx sought, in his own thought and politics, to comprehend and transcend the specifically modern phenomenon of communism, that is, the modern social-democratic workersâ movement emerging in the 19th century, as a constituent of capital, as a historically specific form of humanity. So, what would it mean, today, to view the history of the modern society of capital through the figure of Marx? The possibility of such a project is the Marxist hypothesis.
âMarx-ismâ
It goes a long way in making sense of the most important historical figures of communism after Marx, such as Engels, Kautsky, Plekhanov, Lenin, Luxemburg, Trotsky, Bukharin, LukĂĄcs, Stalin, and Mao, among others, to evaluate them as followers of Marx. It is significant that they themselves sought to justify their own political thought and action in such terms â and were regarded for this by their political opponents as sectarian dogmatists, disciples of Marxism as a religion. But how did they think that they were following Marx? What are we to make of the most significant and profound political movement of the last two centuries, calling itself âMarxist,â and led by people who, in debate, never ceased to quote Marx at each other? What has been puzzled over in such disputes, and what were â and are still, potentially â the political consequences of such disagreement over the meaning of Marx?
Certainly, Marxism has been disparaged as a religion, and Marx as a prophet. (For instance, Leszek Kolakowski dismissed Marxism as the âfarcical aspect of human bondage.â[24]) But what of Marx as a philosopher? If Marx has been widely discredited as a political thinker, nevertheless, in 2005, for instance, a survey of BBC listeners polled Marx as the âgreatest philosopher of all time,â well ahead of Socrates, Kant, Nietzsche, and others. On the face of it, this does not seem like a particularly plausible judgment of Marx, either in terms of his own thinking and practice or of âphilosophyâ as a discipline, unless Marxâs philosophy is understood as indicating how we have not yet overcome the problems he identified in modern society.[25] As far as the reputation of Marx as a thinker is concerned, we seem to have been left with âMarxismâ but without Marxâs own âcommunistâ politics: âMarxismâ has survived as an âanalysis,â but without clear practical importance; âcommunismâ has survived as an ethic without effective politics. How might we make sense of this?
The Marxist hypothesis is that the relation between Marx and âcommunismâ needs to be posed again, but in decidedly non-traditional ways, casting the history of Marxism in a critical light. For it is not that communism found a respected comrade in Marx â perhaps more (or less) estimable than others â but that Marxâs thought and political action form an irreducibly singular model that can yet task us, and to which we must still aspire. Hence, the continued potential purchase of âMarx-ism.â The question is not, as Badiou would have it, what is the future of communism, but of Marx.
To address any potential future of Marxism, it is necessary to revisit Marxâs own Marxism and its implications.
Marx in 1848
Marx pointed out about the revolution in Germany, in which he immediately involved himself after writing the Manifesto, that the capitalists were more afraid of the workers asserting their bourgeois rights than they were of the Prussian state taking away theirs. This was not because of a conflicting class interest between the capitalists and Junkers (Prussian landed aristocracy), but rather because of the emerging authoritarianism in post-Industrial Revolution capital, at a global scale. For such authoritarianism was also characteristic of the revolution of 1848 in France, in which Napoleonâs nephew Louis Bonaparteâs rule, as the first elected President of the Second Republic (1848â52), and then, after his coup dâetat, as Emperor of the Second Empire (1852â70), could not be characterized as expressing the interest of some non-bourgeois class (the âpeasants,â whom Marx insisted on calling, pointedly, âpetit bourgeoisâ), but rather of all the classes of bourgeois society, including the âlumpenproletariat,â in crisis by the mid-19th century.[26] As Marx put it mordantly, in The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852), bourgeois fanatics for order were shot down on their balconies in the name of defense of the social order.[27] The late 19th century rule of Napoleon III and Bismarck â and Disraeli â mirrored each other.Marx analyzed the authoritarianism of post-1848 society, in which the state seems to rise over civil life, as a situation in which the bourgeoisie were no longer and the proletariat not yet able to master capital.[28] This was the crisis of bourgeois society Marx recognized. Badiouâs account, on the other hand, is rather a history of ruling class power opposed by the resistance of the oppressed. As early as 1848 Marx was not a theorist of classes but capital, of which modern socio-political classes were âphantasmagoricalâ projections.[29] Marx sought to situate, not capital in the history of class struggle, but history in capital,[30] to which social struggles and their history were subordinate.[31]
Napoleon III and Bismarck after the French defeat at Sedan, 1870.
Capitalism, communism, and the âstate of natureâ
Jean-Jacques Rousseau had raised a hypothetical âstate of natureâ in order to throw contemporary society into critical relief. In so doing, Rousseau sought to bring society closer to a âstate of nature.â Liberal, bourgeois society was a model and an aspiration for Rousseau. For Rousseau, it was human ânatureâ to be free.* Humans achieved a higher âcivil libertyâ of âmoral freedomâ in society than they could enjoy as animals, with mere âphysicalâ freedom in nature. Indeed, as animals, humans are not free, but rather slaves to their natural needs and instincts. Only in society could freedom be achieved, and humans free themselves from their natural, animal condition.[32] When Rousseau was writing, in the mid-18th century, the promise of freedom in bourgeois society was still on the horizon. Bourgeois society aspired to proximity to the âstate of natureâ in the sense of bringing humanity, both collectively and individually, closer to its potential, to better realize its freedom. With Marx, communism, too, aimed for the realization of this potential. The imagination of a âprimitive communism,â closer to a âstate of natureâ of unspoiled human potential, recapitulated the Rousseauian vision of bourgeois society as emancipation. But, in capitalism, bourgeois society had come to violate its own promised potential. It had become a âstate of nature,â not in Rousseauâs sense, but rather according to Hobbes, a âwar of all against allâ â a conception that Rousseau had critiqued. Society was not to be the suspension of hostilities, but the realization of freedom. Moreover, humanity in society exhibited a âgeneral will,â not reducible to its individual members: more than the sum of its parts. Not a Leviathan, but a âsecond nature,â a rebirth of potential, both individually and collectively. Human nature found the realization of its freedom in society, but humans were free to develop and transform themselves, for good or ill. To bring society closer to the âstate of nature,â then, was to allow humanityâs potential to be better realized. Communism, according to Marx, was to follow Rousseau, not Hobbes, in realizing bourgeois societyâs aspirations and potential. But, first, communism had to be clear about its aims.
Communism: not opposed to, but in, through, and beyond the bourgeois society of capital
The Marxist hypothesis is that Marxâs thought and politics correspond to a moment of profound transformation in the history of modern society, indeed, in the history of humanity: the rise of âindustrial capitalâ and of the concomitant âsocial-democraticâ workersâ movement that attended this change. This was expressed in the workersâ demand for social democracy, which Marx thought needed to be raised to greater self-consciousness to achieve its aims.[33] Marx characterized the moment of industrial capital as marking the crisis in modern society â or even, an event and crisis in ânatural historyâ[34] â in which humanity faced the choice, as Luxemburg put it (echoing Engels) of âsocialism or barbarism.â[35] This was because classical bourgeois forms of politics that had emerged in the preceding era of the rise of manufacturing capital in the 17th and 18th centuries, liberalism and democracy, proved to be inadequate to the problems and tasks of modern society since the 19th century â Marxâs moment. With Marx, humanity faces a new, unforeseen task. However, unfulfilled, this task has fallen into neglect today.[36]
In the transformed circumstance of capital, liberalism and democracy became necessary precisely in their impossibility, and thus pointed to their âdialecticalâ Aufhebung â completion and transcendence through negation, or self-overcoming.[37] Liberalism and democracy became not only mutually contradictory but each became self-contradictory in capital. It is thus not a matter of communism versus liberal democracy â as Badiou and Ĺ˝iĹžek take it to be. Communism was, for Marx, the political movement that pointed to the possibility of overcoming the necessity of liberalism and democracy, or the transcending of the need for âbourgeoisâ politics per se. But this was to be achieved through the politics of the demands for the bourgeois rights of the working class. Marx regarded the socialism and communism that had emerged in his time as expressing a late, and hence self-contradictory and potentially incoherent form of bourgeois radicalism â expressing the radicalization of bourgeois society â but that demanded redemption. Marx sought the potential in capital of going beyond demands for greater liberalism and democracy. Subsequent âcommunismâ lost sight of Marx on this, and disintegrated into the 20th century antinomy of socialism and liberalism.[38] The Marxist hypothesis is that Marx recognized the possibility, not of opposition, but of a qualitative transformation, in, through, and beyond bourgeois society. | §
Originally published in The Platypus Review #29 (November 2010).
1. Alain Badiou, The Communist Hypothesis (London: Verso, 2010). The book is printed in a pocket-sized red hardcover on which is emblazoned a gold star â a Little Red Book (viz., Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung) for our time?
2. Badiou, âThe Communist Hypothesis,â New Left Review 49 (JanuaryâFebruary 2008), 29â42.
3. The other book to originate from Badiouâs 2008 essay in New Left Review is The Meaning of Sarkozy (London: Verso, 2008).
4. Badiou, âThe Communist Hypothesis,â 34â35.
8. See Theodor W. Adorno, âThose Twenties,â Critical Models: Interventions and Catchwords, trans. Henry Pickford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 41â48, originally published in 1961, in which Adorno stated that, âAlready in the twenties, as a consequence of the events of [the failure of the German Revolution in] 1919, the decision had fallen against that political potential that, had things gone otherwise, with great probability would have influenced developments in Russia and prevented Stalinism.â So, âthat the twenties were a world where âeverything may be permitted,â that is, a utopia . . . only seemed soâ (43). Indeed, according to Adorno, âThe heroic age . . . was actually around 1910â (41). See note 13, below.
9. Peter Preuss, Introduction to Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Advantage and Disadvantage of History for Life (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1980), 1.
10. See Louis Menandâs 2003 Introduction to the republication of Edmund Wilsonâs To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History (New York: New York Review of Books, 2003), originally published in 1940, in which Menand cites Wilsonâs statement that âMarx and Engels were the philosophes of a second Enlightenmentâ (xvi). Furthermore, Menand points out that,
Marxism gave a meaning to modernity. . . . Marxism was founded on an appeal for social justice, but there were many forms that such an appeal might have taken. Its deeper attraction was the discovery of meaning, a meaning in which human beings might participate, in history itself. (xiii)
11. See, for example, Adorno, History and Freedom: Lectures 1964â65, ed. Rolf Tiedemann, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity, 2006).
12. Immanuel Kant, âIdea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View,â trans. Lewis White Beck, in Kant on History (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963), 11â25.
13. For instance, the title of Leninâs pamphlet Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) indicates what the historical era of âimperialismâ meant to Lenin and other contemporary Marxists: the eve of revolution. The self-understanding of the Marxists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries grounded the history of Marxism itself in the history of capital, even if their propagandistic rhetoric had the unfortunate character of calling the crisis of capital expressed by Marxism âinevitable.â See note 18, below.
15. See Lars T. Lihâs extensive work on Leninâs âKautskyism,â for instance in Lenin Rediscovered: What is to be Done? in Context (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2008).
Incidentally, in the history of modern socialism [there] is a phenomenon . . . in its way very consoling, namely . . . the strife of the various trends within the socialist movement. . . . [In] the disputes between Lassalleans and Eisenachers, between Guesdists and Possibilists, between Fabians and Social-Democrats, and between Narodnaya Volya adherents and Social-Democrats . . . really [an] international battle with socialist opportunism, [will] international revolutionary Social-Democracy . . . perhaps become sufficiently strengthened to put an end to the political reaction that has long reigned in Europe?
Not a single progressive idea has begun with a âmass base,â otherwise it would not have been a progressive idea. It is only in its last stage that the idea finds its masses â if, of course, it answers the needs of progress. All great movements have begun as âsplintersâ of older movements. . . . The group of Marx and Engels came into existence as a âsplinterâ of the Hegelian Left. The Communist [Third] International germinated during [WWI] from the âsplintersâ of the Social Democratic [Second] International. If these pioneers found themselves able to create a mass base, it was precisely because they did not fear isolation. They knew beforehand that the quality of their ideas would be transformed into quantity. These âsplintersâ . . . carried within themselves the germs of the great historical movements of tomorrow.
[A] transformation and development of Marxist theory has been effected under the peculiar ideological guise of a return to the pure teaching of original or true Marxism. Yet it is easy to understand both the reasons for this guise and the real character of the process which is concealed by it. What theoreticians like Rosa Luxemburg in Germany and Lenin in Russia have done, and are doing, in the field of Marxist theory is to liberate it from the inhibiting traditions of [Social Democracy]. They thereby answer the practical needs of the new revolutionary stage of proletarian class struggle, for these traditions weighed âlike a nightmareâ on the brain of the working masses whose objectively revolutionary socioeconomic position no longer corresponded to these [earlier] evolutionary doctrines. The apparent revival of original Marxist theory in the Third International is simply a result of the fact that in a new revolutionary period not only the workersâ movement itself, but the theoretical conceptions of communists which express it, must assume an explicitly revolutionary form. This is why large sections of the Marxist system, which seemed virtually forgotten in the final decades of the nineteenth century, have now come to life again. (67â68)
19. Adorno, in âReflections on Class Theoryâ (originally written in 1942), provides the following unequivocally powerful interpretation of the perspective of Marx and Engelsâs Communist Manifesto:
According to theory, history is the history of class struggles. But the concept of class is bound up with the emergence of the proletariat. . . . By extending the concept of class to prehistory, theory . . . turns against prehistory itself. . . . By exposing the historical necessity that had brought capitalism into being, political economy became the critique of history as a whole. . . . All history is the history of class struggles because it was always the same thing, namely, prehistory. (Can One Live After Auschwitz? A Philosophical Reader, ed. Rolf Tiedemann [Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003], 93â94.)
20. Walter Benjamin, âExperience and Poverty,â Selected Writings vol. 2 1927â34 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 735. Originally published in 1933.
21. The term used to describe this effect is the âAnthropocene.â Jeffrey Sachs, in the second of his 2007 Reith Lectures, âSurvival in the Anthropoceneâ (Peking University, Beijing, April 18, 2007, available online at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/reith2007/lecture2.shtml>), characterized it this way:
âThe Anthropoceneâ â a term that is spectacularly vivid, a term invented by one of the great scientists of our age, Paul Crutzen, to signify the fact that human beings for the first time have taken hold not only of the economy and of population dynamics, but of the planetâs physical systems, Anthropocene meaning human-created era of Earthâs history. The geologists call our time the Holocene â the period of the last thirteen thousand years or so since the last Ice Age â but Crutzen wisely and perhaps shockingly noted that the last two hundred years are really a unique era, not only in human history but in the Earthâs physical history as well.
22. Marx, âFor the ruthless criticism of everything existing,â letter to Arnold Ruge (September, 1843), in Robert Tucker, ed., Marx-Engels Reader (New York: Norton, 1978), 12â15. Also available online at: <http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/letters/43_09.htm>.
[T]he dim understanding we have of the post-Kantian situation with respect to, letâs say, âthe necessary conditions for the possibility of what isnâtâ . . . is what I wanted to suggest. Iâm not sure it will get us anywhere. Philosophy rarely does. Perhaps it exists to remind us that we havenât gotten anywhere. (428)
26. See Marx, The Class Struggles in France 1848â50 (1850) and The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852).
27. Marx, Eighteenth Brumaire, in Tucker, ed., Marx-Engels Reader:
Every demand of the simplest bourgeois financial reform, of the most ordinary liberalism, of the most formal republicanism, of the most insipid democracy, is simultaneously castigated as an âattempt on societyâ and stigmatized as âsocialism.â . . . Bourgeois fanatics for order are shot down on their balconies by mobs of drunken soldiers, their domestic sanctuaries profaned . . . in the name of property, of family . . . and of order. . . . Finally, the scum of bourgeois society forms . . . the âsaviour of society.â (602â603)
28. Engels summed this up well in his 1891 Introduction to Marx, The Civil War in France (1871), in Tucker, ed., Marx-Engels Reader, 620.
29. See Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, trans. Ben Fowkes (London: Penguin, 1990), 165.
32. See Rousseau, The Social Contract, Ch. 8 âCivil Society,â trans. Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin, 1968), 64â65. Originally published in 1762.
33. See Marx, âFor the ruthless criticism of everything existing.â
34. See note 21, above. See also Adorno, âThe Idea of Natural Historyâ (originally written in 1932), trans. Robert Hullot-Kentor, Telos 57 (1985): â[I]t is not a question of completing one theory by another, but of the immanent interpretation of a theory. I submit myself, so to speak, to the authority of the materialist dialecticâ (124).
[Marx wrote, in the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), that] â[Humanity] always sets itself only such problems as it can solve; since, looking at the matter more closely it will always be found that the problem itself arises only when the material conditions for its solution are already present or are at least understood to be in the process of emergence.â This dictum is not affected by the fact that a problem which supersedes present relations may have been formulated in an anterior epoch. (58)
37. On this point, see some of Marxâs earliest writings, which provided the points of departure for his more mature work, such as âContribution to the Critique ofHegelâs Philosophy of Rightâ (1843), âOn [Bruno Bauerâs] The Jewish Questionâ (1843),and The Poverty of Philosophy (1847).
38. But, for Marx and Engels, there was no necessary contradiction between the freedom of the individual and that of the collective, or, in this sense, between liberalism and socialism: âIn place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of allâ (Manifesto of the Communist Party, in Tucker, ed., Marx-Engels Reader, 491, also available on-line at: <http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm>).
* As James Miller, author of The Passion of Michel Foucault (2000), put it in his 1992 introduction to Rousseauâs Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1992),
The principle of freedom and its corollary, âperfectibilityâ⌠suggest that the possibilities for being human are both multiple and, literally, endlessâŚ. Contemporaries like Kant well understood the novelty and radical implications of Rousseauâs new principle of freedom [and] appreciated his unusual stress on history as the site where the true nature of our species is simultaneously realized and perverted, revealed and distorted. A new way of thinking about the human condition had appearedâŚ. As Hegel put it, âThe principle of freedom dawned on the world in Rousseau, and gave infinite strength to man, who thus apprehended himself as infinite.â (xv)
Presented at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, October 26, 2010. Originally published in 491 #2 (November 2010).
What was postmodernism? â Habermasâs critique
Postmodernism challenged the institutionalized modernism of the mid-20th century, offering more radical forms of social discontents and cultural practice. It meant unmasking the values of progress as involving ideologies of the political status-quo, the problems of which were manifest to a new generation in the 1960s. But, more recently, postmodernism itself has begun to age, and reveal its own concerns as those of the post-1960s situation of global capitalism rather than an emancipated End of History.
In 1980, JĂźrgen Habermas, on the occasion of receiving the Adorno prize in Frankfurt, predicted the exhaustion of postmodernism, characterizing its conservative tendencies. Habermas called this situation the âincomplete projectâ of modernity, a set of unresolved problems that have meant the eventual return of history, if not the return of âmodernism.â How does Habermasâs note of dissent, from the moment of highest vitality of postmodernism, help us situate the concerns of contemporary art in light of society and politics today?
In his Adorno prize talk, Habermas emphasized the question of the âaesthetic experience . . . drawn into individual life history and . . . ordinary life,â and ânot [already] framed by expertsâ critical judgmentsâ (12â13). Habermas thinks that such aesthetic experience âdoes justice to . . . Brechtâs and Benjaminâs interests in how artworks, having lost their aura, could yet be received in illuminating ways,â a âproject [that] aims at a differentiated re-linking of modern culture with an everyday praxis that [would be impoverished by mere traditionalism][, a] new connection [that] that can only be established on condition that societal modernization will also be steered in a different direction [than capitalism].â (13). Habermas admitted that âthe chances for this today are not very goodâ (13).
Instead, Habermas points out at that, âThe disillusionment with the very failures of those programs that called for the negation of art and philosophy has come to serve as a pretense for conservative positionsâ (13â14). This is how Habermas characterized postmodernism, an anti-modernism that was an ideology of the âyoung conservatives,â namely Foucault and Derrida (among others).
Habermas drew a parallel of the postmodernism of Derrida and Foucault to the âneo-conservatives,â for which he took the Frankfurt School critical theorists Horkheimer and Adornoâs former secretary, in their time of exile in the U.S. during WWII, Daniel Bell, as representative. Bell had described the âcultural contradictions of capitalismâ as resulting in what he called âantinomian culture,â which produced a nihilistic âculturatiâ in a âcounterfeitâ high culture of âmultiples,â hedonism for the middle class, and a âpornotopia for the masses.â What Bell, as a self-styled âconservative,â deplored, such as the âconformismâ of a liberal âheterodoxyâ that became a âprescription in its confusions,â postmodernists celebrated. But they agreed on what Habermas called the destructive aspects of the ânegation of art and philosophy,â against which various âhopelessâ âSurrealist revoltsâ had been mounted, as an inevitable result of modernity. Whereas Bell, for instance, explicitly called for the return of religion as a way of staving off the nihilism of modernity, the postmodernists implicitly agreed with the conservative diagnosis of such nihilism, for they explicitly abandoned what Habermas called modernityâs âincomplete projectâ of enlightenment and emancipation. Postmodernism was a form of anti-modernity.
Critical art, liquidated
So, how does art figure in such a project of enlightened emancipation? The scholar of Benjamin and Adornoâs work Susan Buck-Morss wrote, in response to the postmodernist art journal Octoberâs 1996 Visual Culture Questionnaire, that, â[Artistsâ] work is to sustain the critical moment of aesthetic experience. Our work as critics is to recognize it.â Buck-Morss protested against what she called the âliquidationâ of art in the move of âattacking the museum,â âproducing subjects for the next stage of global capitalismâ by replacing concern with the âcritical moment of aesthetic experienceâ with a discourse that âlegitimates culture.â In so doing, Buck-Morss pointed out that failing to properly grasp the social stakes of aesthetic experience resulted in the âvirtuality of representation,â ignoring how, for Benjamin and the Surrealists he critically championed âimages in the mind motivate the willâ and thus have âeffect in the realm of deeds.â
Indeed, prominent October journal writer Hal Foster had, in the 1982 essay âRe: Post,â gone so far as to call for going âbeyond critique,â really, abandoning it, for in critique Foster found precisely the motor of (deplorable) âmodernism,â which he characterized as consciousness of âhistorical momentâ that âadvanced a dialectic.â Foster stated unequivocally that critical âself-reflexivityâ needed to be abandoned because it (supposedly) âenforces closure.â Foster called the Brechtian terms âdefamiliarizationâ and âestrangementâ âquintessentially modernist.â But Foster remained equivocal regarding the matter of artâs potential to âinitiate new ways of seeing,â even if he stayed suspicious of âthe old imperative of the avant-garde and its language of crisis.â
The crisis of criticism â driving art underground
But the concern, for Foster, as with the other leading October writers (such as Rosalind Krauss and Douglas Crimp), was reduced, from social problems, to problematizing art: (in Crimpâs words) âon the museumâs ruins.â But the museum is still standing. The question is whether it still houses art. As Buck-Morss pointed out, the museum is the âvery institution that sustains the illusion that art exists.â What this means is that, disenchanted with art, the ârealm of deeds,â in which âimages in the mind motivate the will,â abandoned by the critics, is ceded instead to the âadvertising industry.â The museum, lacking a critical response, is not overcome as an institution of invidious power, but, instead of sustaining the socially necessary âillusionâ that âart exists,â however domesticated, becomes an embodiment of the power of kitsch, that is, predigested and denatured aesthetic experience, to affirm the status-quo: high-class trash. Art becomes precisely what the postmodernists thought it was. The museum has not faced the crisis of meaning the postmodernists wished of it, only the meaning has become shallower. In Adornoâs terms, the museum has become an advertising for itself, but the use of its experience has become occulted, in favor of its exchange-value: the feeling of the worth of the price of the ticket. But the experience of art is still (potentially) there, if unrecognized.
For Buck-Morss, there is indeed a crisis â of (lack of) recognition. Criticism, and hence consciousness of aesthetic experience objectified in artistic practices, was in crisis in postmodernism. Critical theory ceased to be critical â and thus became affirmative, even if it was confused about this. This was the result, in Habermasâs terms, of the âpostmodernistâ turning away from the âincomplete projectâ of modern artâs critical response to social modernity: a conservative result, by default, even if under the âpretenseâ that it was progressive or even radical.
Against such postmodernist abdication and thus affirmation of existing âculture,â Buck-Morss called for approaching art âemblematically and symptomatically, in terms of the most fundamental questions of social life,â âbringing to consciousness what was before only dimly perceived, so that it becomes available for critical reflection.â Otherwise, Buck-Morss warned that âtomorrowâs artists may opt to go underground,â and âdo their work esoterically, while employed as producers of visual culture.â We might also say that there is the option of continuing to make âart,â but without recognition of its stakes by critics, impaired by a discourse of âvisual cultureâ and supposed âinstitutionalâ critique or opposition â that is, an institutionalized opposition to the institution (such as effected by the October writers, who have since entered the canon of academicism, for instance in the academic art of the postmodernist art school). This outcome represses, or drives âunderground,â the concerns of artists regarding aesthetic experience, which, according to Habermas and Buck-Morss, following Benjamin and Brecht, are potentially âvitalâ and âfundamentalâ to âquestions of social life.â
âRelationalâ aesthetics
The question of the more recent phenomenon of ârelational aestheticsâ needs to be addressed in such terms, for ârelational aestheticsâ claims to be about mobilizing attention to the aesthetic experience of the social for critical ends, in society as well as art.
Several important critical accounts of relational aesthetics have been attempted. Claire Bishop has addressed the problem of relational aesthetics raising the social at the expense of recognition of social antagonisms. Stewart Martin has questioned the relational aesthetics opposition of the social to the (autonomous) art object of traditional (modernist) aesthetics. But Martin has also interrogated the hypostatization of the social, whether considered either as a relatively unproblematic value in itself or as a zone of antagonism, as in Bishopâs criticism. Additionally, Martin has addressed shared problems of the late paradigmatic but opposed attempts on the Left to politicize aesthetics by Jacques Rancière and Alain Badiou. Martin has deployed a sophisticated understanding of Marx and Adorno on the commodity form towards these ends. Thus it becomes possible for Martin to address relational aesthetics practicesâ ânaĂŻve mimesis or aestheticization of novel forms of capitalist exploitation,â in treating art as a âform of social exchangeâ that advocates an âinter-subjective art of convivialityâ (370â371), as well as address the potential political stakes of various approaches to art. â Conversely, it becomes possible for Martin to address what he calls the otherwise naturalized âcommodity form of the politicalâ (372).
Martin is concerned to be able to preserve a social-critical approach to what he calls the âarty non-art of late capitalist culture.â It is necessary, according to Martin, to avoid the âHegelian trapâ of âharmonious rapprochement,â through a dialectic of âanti-art and pure art,â resulting in an âartification of the worldâ that however âbreaksâ with attempts to âcritique bourgeois culture.â Instead, Martin recalls Adornoâs recognition that artâs âautonomy,â its simultaneously âanti-socialâ and ânon-subjectiveâ or âobjectiveâ aspect, was inherent both in its commodity character and in its âresistance to commodification,â through âimmanent critique or self-criticismâ (373). It is this aspect of art, common to both âanti-artâ and âpure art,â that, for Martin, ârelationalâ aesthetics, with its emphasis on the supposedly âinter-subjectiveâ character of the social, occludes.
Historical temporality of artworks not linear succession
John Roberts, in his recovery of Adorno, has focused as well on the âasocialâ aspect of art as the potential source of its critical value. Roberts recovers the key idea, from Benjamin and Adorno, of artworksâ âpre-historyâ and âafter-lifeâ in history, in order to introduce the problem of the historical temporality of the experience of works of art, which is not reducible to their immediate aesthetic experience or the thoughts and feelings of the artists who produced them. Works of art are âobjectiveâ in that they are non-identical with themselves, in the sense of non-identity in time. In Adornoâs terms, artworks have a âhistorical nucleus,â a âtruth-contentâ revealed only as a function of transformations in history. According to Benjamin, this is how artworks can gain stature and power with time.
The example Roberts uses is the late, delayed reception of early 20th century avant-garde artworks in the 1960s, which inspired artists. This is a very different account from the notion, common in postmodernist criticism, of artists rebelling against the preceding styles and art criticism and historical discourses of abstract expressionism. Artists may have remained innocent of the cloistered disputes of the art critics and historians, though their works were used as evidence in these disputes; and they may have remained more sympathetic to abstract expressionism as art than the postmodernist critics were. The pendulum-swing or grandfather-rule accounts of the vicissitudes of history are inadequate to the non-linear temporality Roberts highlights.
Roberts discusses works of art as forms of âdeferred actionâ in history, with which artists and viewers engage in new forms of art production and reception, which belie notions of successions of styles traditional to art history. This allows works of art to be understood as embodiments of objectified experience that change as a function of historical transformations, as potentially informing a proliferation of experiences unfolding in history, rather than, as Foster, for example, feared, forms of âclosure.â
Neo-avant garde or neo-modernist?
It is important that neither Habermas (nor Bell) nor Buck-Morss accepted the idea that gained traction in the 1970s of a division between modernist and avant-garde art. For neither did Benjamin or Adorno. (Peter BĂźrgerâs influential study, Theory of the Avant-Garde, was, importantly, a critique of Adornoâs Aesthetic Theory on this score.)
What Martin calls the âdialecticâ of âanti-artâ and âpure artâ has continued, though not necessarily in terms of opposed camps, but rather in what Adorno recognized as the necessary element of the non-artistic in artworks. Now that postmodernism has been exhausted as a trend in criticism (as seen by significant reversals on the part of its standard-bearers such as Foster), it becomes possible to recognize how postmodernism reacted inadequately and problematically to this dialectic, conflating realms of art and social life, and thus repressed it, obscuring its operations from proper recognition.
The emergence of ârelationalâ aesthetics in the 1990s marked the exhaustion of postmodernism, as both its culmination and its negation (it is significant that Foster was hostile, calling it a mere âarty partyâ), but also a terminal phase of the recrudescence of the problem of the social and of politics, long wandering lost through the postmodernist desert of the 1970s and â80s, during which Adorno, for example, could only be received as an old-fashioned modernist. But, since the 1990s, critics and theorists have found it increasingly necessary to reconsider Adorno.
Today, which may be considered a post-postmodernist moment, art practices can be broadly grouped into two seemingly unrelated tendencies, neo-avant garde (such as in relational aesthetics) and neo-modernist (in the revival of the traditional plastic arts of objects such as painting and sculpture). The task would be to understand what these apparently independent tendencies in art have in common as phenomena of history, the society and politics with which art practices are bound up. Postmodernist art criticism has made it impossible to properly grasp such shared history of the present, hence its exhaustion today, leaving current art unrecognized.
But, in the midst of the high era of postmodernist criticism, Habermas sounded an important note of dissent and warning against this trend, reminding of what postmodernism left aside in terms of society and politics. For it is with respect to society and political ideology that art remained potentially vital and necessary, if under-recognized as such. In his Adorno prize talk, Habermas raised the problem of art as an exemplary task for the âcritical intellectual.â This is because, as more recent critics such as Bishop, Martin and Roberts have noted, art, in its dialectical transformations, allows for the recognition of history, the present as historical, revealing not only the history of art, but of modern capitalist society and its unfulfilled forms of discontent, as registered in aesthetic experience. | §
Sources
Theodor W. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory (1970), trans. Robert Hullot-Kentor (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1997).
Daniel Bell, “Foreword: 1978,” The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1978), xiâxxix.
Walter Benjamin, “The Task of the Translator,” Illuminations (New York: Schocken, 1969), 69â82.
Claire Bishop, “Antagonism and Relational Aesthetics,” October 110 (Fall 2004), 51â79.
Claire Bishop, “The Social Turn: Collaboration and its Discontents,” Artforum (February 2006), 179â185.
Susan Buck-Morss, Response to the Visual Culture Questionnaire, October 77 (Summer 1996), 29â31.
Hal Foster, “Re:Post,” Art after Modernism, ed. Brian Wallis (Boston: David R. Godine, 1992), 189â201.
JĂźrgen Habermas, “Modernity â An Incomplete Project,” The Anti-Aesthetic, ed. Hal Foster (Port Townsend, WA: Bay Press, 1983), 3â15.
Stewart Martin, “Critique of Relational Aesthetics,” Third Text 21.4 (July 2007), 369â386.
A critique of the Revolutionary Communist Party, USAâs âNew Synthesisâ
Review of Communism: The Beginning of a New Stage, Manifesto from the RCP, USA; and Raymond Lotta, Nayi Duniya, and K. J. A., âAlain Badiouâs âPolitics of Emancipationâ: A Communism Locked Within the Confines of the Bourgeois Worldâ Demarcations 1 (SummerâFall 2009).[1]
Chris Cutrone
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, portrait painted by Maurice-Quentin La Tour (1754).
Prologue
DAVID BHOLAT ADOPTED, as epigraph for his essay âBeyond Equality,â the following passage from Joseph Schumpeterâs classic 1942 book Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy:
First and foremost, socialism means a new cultural worldâŚ. But second â what cultural world?⌠Some socialists are ready enough with folded hands and the smile of the blessed on their lips, to chant the canticle of justice, equality, freedom in general and freedom from âthe exploitation of man by manâ in particular, of peace and love, of fetters broken and cultural energies unchained, of new horizons opened, of new dignities revealed. But that is Rousseau adulterated with some Bentham.[2]
Bholatâs essay follows Schumpeter in seeking to demonstrate the inadequacy and problematic character of the call for social âequality,â for which he finds warrant in Marxâs critique of capital. This is most notable in Marxâs statement, echoing the French socialist Louis Blanc, that an emancipated society beyond capital would be governed by the principle of providing âfrom each according to his ability, to each according to his need.â[3]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712â78) argued, in his 1754 Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, that society alone produced âinequality,â since in nature there are only âdifferences.â Marx sought to fulfill Rousseauâs demand for a society freed from the necessity of commensurability, of making alike what is unlike, in the commodity form of labor â a society freed from the exigencies of the exchange of labor.
Jeremy Bentham (1748â1832), the founder of Utilitarian philosophy at the end of the 18th century, famously called for society to provide âthe greatest good for the greatest number.â Marx considered his project to fulfill this aspiration as well.
The modern society of capital has indeed sought to achieve these various desiderata, of the individual diversity of incommensurable difference, as well as increased wellbeing of all its members, but has consistently failed to do so. A Marxian approach can be regarded as the immanent critique of capital, the critique of capital on its own ground, as expressed by the classical âbourgeoisâ liberal thinkers such as Rousseau and Bentham at the dawn of modern capitalist society, in that capital fails to fulfill its promise, but it would be desirable to accomplish this.
Schumpeter, writing in the mid-20th century, thought that modern society was moving inexorably toward âsocialism,â and that this was due to the unique and potentially crucial role that modern society allowed âintellectualsâ to play. The far greater access to education that modern capitalist society made possible entailed the emergence of a stratum of people who could articulate problems for which they were not directly responsible, on behalf of social groups to which they did not belong. This meant the possibility of a more radical critique and the fostering and mobilizing of broader social discontents than had been possible in pre-capitalist society. This role for intellectuals, combined with the inherent structural social problems of capital and the rise of âdemocraticâ politics, created a potentially revolutionary situation in which âsocialism,â or the curtailment of capitalist entrepreneurship, was the likely outcome.
Bholat concluded his essay âBeyond Equalityâ by citing favorably Slavoj Ĺ˝iĹžek and Jacques Derridaâs critiques, respectively, of âMarxâs tolerance for the defects of first-phase communism,â and of the principle of âequality before the law.â[4]
The possibility of a âdialecticalâ transformation, the simultaneous negation and fulfillment of capital, its Aufhebung through a âproletarian socialistâ politics, as capitalâs simultaneous historical realization and overcoming â as Marx conceived it, following Hegel â has proven elusive, but continues to task theoretical accounts inspired by Marxism.
Entre nous
The Maoist Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP), USA published in 2008 the manifesto, Communism: The Beginning of a New Stage. This was followed, in short order, by the launching of a new theoretical journal, Demarcations, whose inaugural issue included a lengthy critique of Alain Badiou by RCP members* Raymond Lotta, Nayi Duniya, and K. J. A., titled âAlain Badiouâs âPolitics of Emancipationâ: A Communism Locked Within the Confines of the Bourgeois World.â Taken together, these and other recent writings of the RCP amount to a significant departure and change in orientation for their tendency of American Maoism. This is noteworthy as they are one of the most prominent Marxist Left organizations in the U.S., helping to organize, for instance, the major anti-war group The World Canât Wait. The RCPâs spokesperson Sunsara Taylor is regularly invited to represent the radical Left on Fox News and elsewhere. Recently, the RCP has conducted a campaign of interventions featuring Lotta and Taylor as speakers at college and university campuses, including the top elite schools throughout the U.S., on the topic of communism today, in light of the history of the 20th century revolutions in Russia and China and their defeats. In this, the RCP demonstrates a reorientation towards intellectuals as potential cadres for revolutionary politics.[5]
The RCPâs critique of the latter-day and post-Maoist âcommunistâ Alain Badiouâs conception of âradical, anarchic equalityâ is a part of their program of demonstrating âHow Communism Goes Beyond Equality and Why it Must.â It strongly resembles David Bholatâs critique of the traditional Marxist Left in âBeyond Equality.â For, as Bholat wrote, âin light of the world-historical failure of Marxism,â the âone-sided emphasis of historical left movements on equity⌠might be reevaluated today,â for such discontents remained âvulnerable to fascist elements motivated by ressentiment and revengeâ that ârepresented a reactionary desire⌠to return to a romanticized, precapitalist moment.â[6]
So, some clarification â and radicalization â of discontents has appeared necessary. For what is offered by such apparently disparate perspectives as Bholat and the RCP is what might be called a âpost-postmodernistâ politics, in which the radical reconsideration of the experience of 20th century Marxism seems in order. This links to Badiou and Ĺ˝iĹžekâs attempts to advance what they call the âcommunist hypothesis.â Ĺ˝iĹžek has spoken of âthe Badiou eventâ as opening new horizons for both communism and philosophy. Badiou and Ĺ˝iĹžek share a background in Lacanian and Althusserian âpost-structuralistâ French thought, in common with other prominent post-New Left thinkers â and former students of Louis Althusser â such as Etienne Balibar and Jacques Rancière. Althusser found, in the Russian and Chinese Revolutions, a salutary challenge to the notion of the Hegelian âlogic of history,â that revolutionary change could and indeed did happen as a matter of contingency.[7] Althusser took great inspiration from Mao in China and Lenin in Russia for advancing the possibility of emancipation against a passive expectancy of automatic evolution in the historical process of capital. Michel Foucault took Althusser as license to go for an entire historiography of contingency.[8] For Badiou, this means that emancipation must be conceived of as an âevent,â which involves a fundamental reconsideration of ontology.[9] There is a common background for such postmodernist politics, also, in Sartreâs âexistentialistâ Marxism, the anti-Cartesian phenomenology of Henri Bergson and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and the âSpinozistâ materialism of Georges Bataille.[10] The coincidence of vintage 1960s Maoist New Left Marxism with contemporaneous French thought â Foucault, Deleuze, Derrida â has resulted in a veritable chinoiserie prominent in reconsiderations of Marxism today.[11] But what does the â distinctively French â image of China say about the potential for a reformulated Leftist politics?[12]
Rousseau
The mid-18th century Enlightenment philosophe Rousseau stands as the central figure at the critical crossroads for any consideration of the historical emergence of the Left.[13] Rousseau has haunted the self-understanding of Marxism, and indeed of revolutionary politics more generally, if only for the problematic influence he exercised on the pre-Marxian Left, most infamously in the ideas of the radical Jacobins such as Robespierre in the Great French Revolution. Lenin famously described himself as a âJacobin indissolubly joined to the organization of the proletariat, which has become conscious of its class interests.â[14] Modern conservatism was in an important sense founded by Edmund Burkeâs (1729â97) anti-Jacobin critique of Rousseau.
In his critique of Bruno Bauerâs The Jewish Question (1843), the young Marx cited the following from Rousseauâs Social Contract (1762):
Whoever dares undertake to establish a peopleâs institutions must feel himself capable of changing, as it were, human nature, of transforming each individual, who by himself is a complete and solitary whole, into a part of a larger whole, from which, in a sense, the individual receives his life and his being, of substituting a limited and mental existence for the physical and independent existence. He has to take from man his own powers, and give him in exchange alien powers which he cannot employ without the help of other men.
Marx wrote that this was âwell formulated,â but only as âthe abstract notion of political man,â concluding that,
Human emancipation will only be complete when the real, individual man has absorbed into himself the abstract citizen; when as an individual man, in his everyday life, in his work, and in his relationships, he has become a species-being; and when he has recognized and organized his own powers as social powers so that he no longer separates this social power from himself as political power.[15]
The RCPâs Lotta, Duniya and K.J.A., under the chapter heading âWhy Alain Badiou is a Rousseauist, and Why We should not be,â point out that Rousseauâs perspective is that of âbourgeois society:â
The forms and content of equality in bourgeois society correspond to a certain mode of production: capitalism, based on commodity production and the interactions it engenders: private ownership, production for profit not need, and exploitation of wage-labor. Commodity production is governed by the exchange of equivalents, the measure of the labor time socially necessary to produce these commodities; that is, by an equal standard.[16]
Like Bholat following Derrida in âBeyond Equality,â Lotta, Duniya, and K.J.A. attack âthe standard of âequality before the lawâ of bourgeois jurisprudence [as] a standard that serves the equal treatment of the capitalist property holders in a society governed by capitalist market relations,â adding that, âfor the dispossessed, formal equality masks the condition of fundamental powerlessness.â What Lotta et al. dismiss as âformal equalityâ is not the liberal conception formulated by Rousseau that Marx cited favorably, precisely in its recognition of the âalienationâ of the âchangingâ of âhuman natureâ in society. Rather, the RCP writers let slip back in the one-sided conception of âpoliticsâ that Marx criticized and sought to overcome. For them, the opposition between the social and political that Marx diagnosed as symptomatic of modern capitalist society becomes instead the rigged game between exploiters and exploited. Note the need that Marx identified for the âindividualâ to â[recognize] and [organize] his own powers as social powers so that he no longer separates this social power from himself as political power,â something quite different from simply removing the âmaskâ of false âequalityâ from the condition of the âdispossessedâ in âbourgeois democracy.â Where does the RCPâs perspective of revolutionary politics originate? This is made apparent in the central section of their critique of Badiou over the interpretation of the Shanghai Commune, an event in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (GPCR) in China.
La Commune
The GPCR is dear to both Badiou and the RCP. This was the greatest event in the history of Marxism to take place in the era of the 1960sâ70s New Left, and it exerted a profound attraction and influence over many at the time. The RCP is a direct product of its broad international impact. It seemed to justify Maoâs claim to be the leading international (and not merely Chinese) opponent of ârevisionism,â i.e. of the abdication of proletarian socialist revolution in favor of reformism. Apart from factual questions about what really happened during the Cultural Revolution and the substance of Maoâs own politics, both in China and internationally (thoughtful Maoists do not deny the distortion of Maoâs politics by nationalism, but they tend to gloss over the intra-bureaucratic aspects of the GPCR), the issue of what the Cultural Revolution and Maoism more generally might mean to people, both then and now, is of more pressing concern. After all, the two most forthright arguments in favor of âcommunismâ today are made by Maoists, Badiou and the RCP. It is also significant that both favor the appellation of âcommunistâ over âMarxist,â which both do on the grounds of their understanding of the Cultural Revolution.
The Cultural Revolution is the basis for regarding Mao as making a unique and indispensable contribution to communism. What the Cultural Revolution means to Maoists is fundamentally informed by their conception of capitalism. So, rather than taking sides in or analyzing the social and political phenomenon of the Cultural Revolution per se, it is necessary to examine what has been taken to be its significance. The Chinese Cultural Revolution is perhaps the most significant recent âJacobinâ moment in the history of Marxism, raising again, in the latter part of the 20th century, long-standing questions about the relation between socialism and democracy â the issue of âcommunism,â in the strict sense.
The significance of the Shanghai Commune of 1967 is contested by Badiou and the RCP. For Badiou it was a model akin to the 1792â94 radical Jacobin period of the French Revolution. In the Shanghai Commune radicalized students (âRed Guardsâ) overthrew the local Communist Party apparatus, spreading into a workersâ revolt. While initially enthusiastic about this spontaneous âanti-revisionistâ upsurge against conservative elements in the CP, Mao and his followers ultimately rejected the Shanghai Commune as a model. They advocated instead the ârevolutionary committeeâ in which the Maoist Communist Party cadresâ paramount leading political character could be preserved. Badiou criticizes this straitjacketing of communism in the âparty-state,â whereas the RCP defends Maoâs politics of rejuvenating the Party and purging it of âcapitalist roadersâ as the necessary and sole revolutionary path.
Badiou, by contrast, sees Maoâs eventual rejection of the Shanghai Commune as a betrayal of âegalitarianism.â For him, the âparty-stateâ is a brake on the radical âdemocraticâ egalitarianism that characterizes âcommunismâ as a historically recurrent political phenomenon. The RCP critiques this conception of âequalityâ and âdirect democracyâ as âconcealing class interestsâ and thus being unable to ârise above particular interests.â For instance, according to the RCP, as long as there remains a distinction between âintellectual and manual labor,â intellectuals can come to dominate the social process, even under socialism, thus reproducing a dynamic constantly giving rise to the possible return to capitalism, which is understood primarily as a matter of social and political hierarchy. To the RCP, Badiou is thus prematurely egalitarian.
Badiou conceives of the relation between freedom and equality as an ontological one, in the mathematical terms of set theory, transhistoricizing it. The RCP, while recognizing the historically specific nature of capitalist class struggle, conceives of the role of the revolutionary proletarian party as the political means for suppressing tendencies towards social inequality. In either case, neither Badiou nor the RCP conceives of the transformation of the capitalist mode of production that would allow for overcoming the socially pernicious aspects of specifically capitalist forms of inequality, the dangers of which are understood by Badiou and the RCP rather atavistically. Marx, by contrast, looked forward to the potential for overcoming the conditions of possibility for the reproduction of capitalist class dynamics in the mode of production itself: capitalâs overcoming of the need to accumulate the value of surplus labor-time. Marx saw the historical potential to overcome this socially mediating aspect of labor in automated machine production. However, Marx also foresaw that, short of socialism, the drive to accumulate surplus-value results in producing a surplus population, an âindustrial reserve armyâ of potential âworkersâ who thus remain vulnerable to exploitation. A politics based only in their âdemocraticâ discontents can result, not in the overcoming of the social need for labor, but only in the (capitalist) demand for more labor. Or, as Max Horkheimer, director of the Marxist Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, put it, machines âhave made not work but the workers superfluous.â[17]
For the RCP, Mao in the Cultural Revolution addressed in new and effective ways problems of the âtransition to socialismâ never attempted under Stalin. The RCP criticizes Stalin for his failed âmethodsâ in advancing the transition to socialism, a failure Mao overcame in the Cultural Revolution in China 1966â76. The RCP celebrates the egalitarian-emancipatory impulse of the Cultural Revolution while also praising Maoâs guidance and political leadership of the process by which the âcapitalistâ road to Chinaâs development was politically overcome and avoided. This struggle ended, according to the RCP, with Maoâs death and the subsequent purging of his followers, known as the âGang of Four,â in 1976, embarking China upon its capitalist development up to the present.
Badiou explicitly attacks the limitations of Marxism in general, and not merely the âparty-stateâ form of political rule (for which he holds Marxism responsible), for failing to recognize how the emancipatory striving of âequalityâ goes âbeyond class.â This is why he favors the designation âcommunismâ to âMarxism.â The RCP (rightly) smells a rat in this attempt by Badiou to take communism âbeyondâ anti-capitalist class-struggle politics. But in so doing they do not pause to reflect on the subordinate position of class struggle in Marxâs own conception of the possibility of overcoming capital.
For Marx, the political-economic struggle of the specifically modern classes of capitalists and workers is a projection of the contradiction of capital. The RCP, by contrast, regards the class struggle as constituting the social contradiction in capital. This flows from their understanding of the contradiction of capital as existing between the socialized forces of production and the privatized and hence capitalist relations of production. Privileged empowerment, whether in the form of capitalist private property or in more developed intellectual capacities, is the source rather than the result of the contradiction of capital in the RCPâs traditional âMarxistâ view. For the RCP, Badiouâs perspective of radical democratic âequalityâ does not address such inherent social advantage that intellectuals would enjoy even under socialism, presenting the constant threat of defeating the struggle for socialism.[18]
But the RCP does not stop at upholding Mao in the Cultural Revolution as a model for revolutionary politics. Rather, they attempt a ânew synthesisâ in which the relation of Marx, Lenin and Mao as historical figures is reformulated to provide for a 21st century socialist politics that could still learn from but overcome the limitations of the 20th century experience of the Russian and Chinese Revolutions.
The ânew synthesisâ
According to a traditional Maoist view, the RCP considers the historical trajectory from Marx through Lenin to Mao as a progress in the theory and practice of the struggle for socialism. But they also detect distinct limitations among all three historical figures and so regard them as importantly complementary rather than successive. For the RCPâs ânew synthesis,â Marx and Lenin can still address the shortcomings of Mao, rather than the latter simply building upon the former. How so?
It is important first to consider the significance of this change in the RCPâs thinking from traditional Maoism. The RCPâs ânew synthesisâ was the cause of a split in the RCP, with some, including Mike Ely, going on to form the Kasama Project. The RCP replies to criticism of their current articulations of the limitations of the Russian and Chinese Revolutions with reference to earlier criticism of the RCP, over the course of the past three decades, for reducing Communism to a âtattered flagâ in their reconsideration of this history. But the RCP should be commended for taking this risk.
The RCP struggles in explaining and relating the limitations of the three principal thinkers in the tradition they look towards for âcommunism.â With Marx, there is the limitation of relatively lacking historical experience of socialist revolution. Only the Paris Commune figures for this history. With Lenin, the limitations of the Bolshevik Revolution are displaced in the RCPâs evaluation of, not Lenin, but Stalinâs attempt to build âsocialismâ in the 1920sâ30s. Like the disastrous Great Leap Forward in China (1958â61), the first Five-Year Plan in the Soviet Union (1928â33), a period of ârevolutionaryâ militancy in the history of Stalinâs rule, is glossed over by the RCP in evaluating the Russian and Chinese 20th century experiences of attempts to âbuild socialism.â[19]
For the RCP, Mao represents a breakthrough. Through his leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, the limitations of the experience of Stalinism in the Soviet Union were overcome, in the Cultural Revolution in China of the 1960sâ70s. But none of these are examples of success â socialism, let alone communism, has not yet been achieved â and they do not exactly add up, but rather require a âsynthesis.â
Mao provides a salutary contribution only the degree to which the Cultural Revolution overcame the problem of Stalinist âmethods,â which are considered bureaucratic and authoritarian in the sense of stifling revolutionary initiative: Stalin did the right things but in the wrong ways. Not secretly manipulated purge âtrials,â but peopleâs justice would have been the better way to stave off the threat of the âcapitalist roadâ in the USSR of the 1930s. Most telling about the RCPâs ânew synthesisâ is how they conceive its first two figures. For the RCP, a combination of Marx and Lenin taken without Mao becomes a perspective of âEurocentric world revolution.â This is because, in the RCPâs estimation, there is a significant difference between Lenin and âLeninism,â the degree to which the former, according to the RCP, âdid not always live upâ to the latter, and the latter is assimilated to what are really phenomena of Stalinism and Maoism, building âsocialism in one country,â in which Maoâs own practice, especially in the Cultural Revolution, takes priority. But this begs the question of the Marxist perspective on âworld revolutionâ â and the need for revolution in the U.S., which Marx and Lenin themselves thought was key. Instead, the problem of socialism in China dominates the RCPâs historical imagination of revolution.
World revolution
Kant, in his theses in âIdea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of Viewâ (1784), addressed Rousseau as follows. Kant warned of the danger that,
[T]he vitality of mankind may fall asleepâŚ. Until this last step to a union of states is taken, which is the halfway mark in the development of mankind, human nature must suffer the cruelest hardships under the guise of external well-being; and Rousseau was not far wrong in preferring the state of savages, so long, that is, as the last stage to which the human race must climb is not attainedâŚ. [Mere civilization,] however, is nothing but pretense and glittering misery. In such a condition the human species will no doubt remain until⌠it works its way out of the chaotic conditions of its international relations.[20]
Marx considered his political project to be a continuation of Kantâs, no less than Rousseauâs or Benthamâs, albeit under the changed historical conditions of post-Industrial Revolution capitalism, in which âinternational relationsâ expressed not merely an unenlightened state, but the social contradictions of the civilization of global capital.[21] Writing on the Paris Commune of 1870â71, Marx addressed the antithetical forms of cosmopolitanism in capital:
If the Commune was thus the true representative of all the healthy elements of French society, and therefore the truly national government, it was, at the same time, as a working men’s government, as the bold champion of the emancipation of labor, emphatically international. Within sight of that Prussian army, that had annexed to Germany two French provinces, the Commune annexed to France the working people all over the worldâŚ. The [preceding] Second Empire [by contrast] had been the jubilee of cosmopolitan blackleggism, the rakes of all countries rushing in at its call for a share in its orgies and in the plunder of the French people.[22]
The RCP remains hampered by the Stalinist perspective of building âsocialism in one country,â at the expense of a direct politics of world revolution that characterized the Marxism of Marxâs own time, in the First International. And so the RCP fails to recognize the degree to which Marxâs own politics was âemphatically internationalâ in nature. As Marx scholar Moishe Postone put it,
Now, the revolution, as imagined by Trotsky â because itâs Trotsky who really influences Lenin in 1918 â entailed the idea of permanent revolution, in that, revolution in the East would spark revolution in the West. But I think Trotsky had no illusions about the Soviet Union being socialist. This was the point of his debate with Stalin. The problem is that both were right. That is, Trotsky was right: there is no such thing as âsocialism in one country.â Stalin was right, on the other hand, in claiming that this was the only road that they had open to them once revolution failed in the West, between 1918â1923. Now, did it have to be done with the terror of Stalin? Thatâs a very complicated question, but there was terror and it was enormous, and we donât do ourselves a service by neglecting that. In a sense it becomes an active will against history, as wild as claiming that âhistory is on our side.â[23]
Bob Avakian, the leader of the RCP, writing about âLeninism as the bridge,â put the matter of the relation between Marx, Lenin and Mao this way: âMarxism without Leninism is Eurocentric social-chauvinism and social democracy. Maoism without Leninism is nationalism (and also, in certain contexts, social-chauvinism) and bourgeois democracy.â[24] But Avakian and the RCP have a fundamental ambivalence about Lenin. In the same article, Avakian wrote that, âas stressed before there is Leninism and there is Lenin, and if Lenin didnât always live up to Leninism, that doesnât make Leninism any less than what it is.â This is because, for the RCP, âLeninismâ is in fact Stalinism, to which they recognize Leninâs actual politics cannot be assimilated. It is therefore a standing question of what remains of Marx and Lenin when they are unhitched from the Stalinist-Maoist train of 20th century âcommunism,â the eventual course of the Russian and Chinese Revolutions to which the RCP points for inspiration and guidance. But the RCPâs imagination has always been fired more by the Chinese than the Russian experience. If âLeninismâ was a historical âbridge,â it led to Maoâs China.
The image of China
China has provided a Rococo mirror reflecting global realities, whether in the 18th or the 20th and 21st centuries. The Middle Kingdom has stood, spectacular and confounding, for attempts to comprehend in social imagination both civilization and barbarism, now as then. The ancien rĂŠgime at Versailles awaiting its historical fate would have liked to close itself up in a Forbidden City; the fervid imaginations of the 18th century philosophes such as Rousseau would have liked to breach the walls of its decadent customs. Both projected their world through the prism of China, which seemed to condense and refract at once all the splendors and horrors â Kantâs âglittering miseryâ â of society. This has also been true of the Left from the latter part of the 20th century to the present. The very existence of China has seemed to suggest some obscure potential for the future of humanity, both thrilling and terrifying. What if China were indeed the center of the world, as many on the Left have wished, ever since the 1960s?
If today China strikes the imagination as a peculiar authoritarian âcommunistâ capitalist powerhouse that may end up leading the world in the 21st century, in the 1960s the Cultural Revolution symbolized China. Immediately prior to the student and worker upheaval in France of May 1968, Jean-Luc Godard directed his film La Chinoise (1967) about young revolutionaries in Paris. At around the same time, Horkheimer worried about the appearance of âChinese on the Rhine,â as students began reading and quoting from Maoâs Little Red Book. If in the 18th century the Jacobin revolutionaries wanted France not to be China, in the 1960s would-be French revolutionaries wanted China to be the revolutionary France of the late 20th century.
In his critique of Jacobinism, Burke wrote that,
[T]he age of chivalry is gone: that of sophisters, economists, and calculators, has succeededâŚ. The unbought grace of life⌠is gone!⌠All the pleasing illusions⌠which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments which beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason.
On this scheme of things, a king is but a man; a queen is but a woman; a woman is but an animal; and an animal not of the highest orderâŚ. On the scheme of this barbarous philosophy, which is the offspring of cold hearts and muddy understandings⌠laws are to be supported only by their terrors, and by the concern, which each individual may find in them, from his own private speculations, or can spare to them from his own private interests.[25]
Still, the Jacobin terror continues. Today in Communist China, a bribery case in producing chemically adulterated pharmaceuticals, baby milk formula, and pet food results in a death sentence, to prevent any decrease in demand from the United States. Chinese authorities dismiss the criticism made on human rights grounds, pointing to the need to be vigilant against a constant threat of âcorruption.â No doubt American consumers wonder what such swift âjusticeâ could do to improve corporate behavior in the U.S.
The connection between revolutionary France and China in the bourgeois epoch, from the 18th century through the 20th century to the present, is summed up well in an apocryphal quip supposedly made by the Chinese Communist Premier Zhou Enlai, in response to a question about the historical significance of the French Revolution: Zhou said it was still âtoo soon to tell.â Because of its Revolution in the 20th century, China came to have cast upon it the long shadow of Jacobinism and Rousseauâs 18th century critique of social inequality. But, as Marx discovered long ago, inequality is not the cause but the effect of capital. Such confusion has contributed to the perspective of âThird Worldâ revolution that had its heyday in the post-WWII Left â after the 1949 Chinese Revolution â and that still stalks the imagination of emancipatory politics today. Not only post-postmodernist neo-communists such as Badiou, but also Maoists in the more rigorous 1960sâ70s tradition such as the RCP, remain beholden to the specter of inequality in the modern world.
China, as a result of its 20th century revolutionary transformation, has gone from being like the India of the 18th century, its traditional ways of life breaking down and swamped in pre-capitalist obscurity, confronted with the dynamics of global capitalism, to becoming something like a potential Britain of the 18th century â the manufacturing âworkshop of the worldâ â albeit in the profoundly changed circumstances of the 21st century. As Marx, in a 1858 letter to Engels, pointed out about his own time,
There is no denying that bourgeois society has for the second time experienced its 16th century, a 16th century which, I hope, will sound its death knell just as the first ushered it into the world. The proper task of bourgeois society is the creation of the world market, at least in outline, and of the production based on that marketâŚ. For us, the difficult question is this: [in Europe] revolution is imminent and will, moreover, instantly assume a socialist character. Will it not necessarily be crushed in this little corner of the earth, since the movement of bourgeois society is still, in the ascendant over a far greater area?[26]
What the 16th century meant to Marx was the âprimitive accumulation of capital,â the process by which society was transformed, through the liquidation of the peasantry, in the emergence of the modern working class and the bourgeois social relations of its existence. If this process continued in the 19th century, beyond Britain, through the rest of Europe and the United States and Japan, in the 20th century it proceeded in Asia â through the Russian and Chinese Revolutions. The reconstitution of capital in the 19th century, unleashing a brutal process of late colonial expansion, was, to Marxâs mind, not only unnecessary and hence tragic, but also regressive and potentially counterrevolutionary. Marxâs warning should have resounded loudly through the ârevolutionaryâ history of Marxism in the 20th century, but was instead repressed and forgotten.
For Marx and Engels, it was not a matter of China and other countries, newly swept into the maelstrom of capitalist development by the mid-19th century, âcatching upâ with Britain and other more âadvancedâ areas, but rather the possibility of the social and political turbulence in such âcolonialâ zones having any progressive-emancipatory impact on global capital at its core. As Marx wrote, in The Class Struggles in France, 1848â50,about the relation of England to other countries,
Just as the period of crisis began later [elsewhere] than in England, so also did prosperity. The process originated in England, which is the demiurge of the bourgeois cosmos. [Elsewhere] the various phases of the cycle repeatedly experienced by bourgeois society assume a secondary and tertiary formâŚ. Violent outbreaks naturally erupt sooner at the extremities of the bourgeois body than in its heart, because in the latter the possibilities of accommodation are greater than in the former. On the other hand, the degree to which revolutions [elsewhere] affect England is at the same time the [barometer] that indicates to what extent these revolutions really put into question bourgeois life conditions, and to what extent they touch only their political formations.
On this all the reactionary attempts to hold back bourgeois development will rebound just as much as will all the ethical indignation and all the enraptured proclamations of the democrats.[27]
This means that the âdemocraticâ politics that engenders âethical indignationâ at the rank inequality in global capital remains woefully inadequate to the task of overcoming the âbourgeois worldâ within which the RCP accuses Badiou et al. of remaining âlocked.â For subsequent history has clearly shown that the Chinese Revolution under Mao remained trapped in global capital, despite the âsocialistâ ferment of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution that gripped the imagination of the international Left of the time, âMaoistâ and otherwise.[28] Without revolutionary socialist consequences in the âheartâ of the bourgeois world, revolutions in countries such as China cannot, according to Marx, âreally put into question bourgeois life conditionsâ but âtouch only their political formations.â As Engels put it, in a 1882 letter to the leading German Social Democratic Party Marxist theorist Karl Kautsky,
[T]he countries inhabited by a native population, which are simply subjugated⌠must be taken over for the time being by the [world] proletariat and led as rapidly as possible towards independence. How this process will develop is difficult to say⌠[Such places] will perhaps, indeed very probably, produce a revolution⌠and [this] would certainly be the best thing for us. We shall have enough to do at home. Once Europe is reorganized [in socialism], and North America, that will furnish such colossal power and such an example that the semi-civilized countries will follow in their wake of their own accord. Economic needs alone will be responsible for this. But as to what social and political phases these countries will then have to pass through before they likewise arrive at socialist organization, we to-day can only advance rather idle hypotheses.[29]
âLocked within the confines of the bourgeois worldâ
Despite the RCPâs critique of the post-1960s New Left neo-communism of Badiou, and its partial recognition that Marx and the best of Marxism sought to go beyond âbourgeoisâ discontents and demands for equality in capital, the RCP perspective on Marxism remains compromised by its focus on capitalist inequality. This leads to an ambivalent and confused conception of the potential role of âintellectualsâ in revolutionary politics â a role highlighted in the mid-20th century by even such unreservedly âbourgeoisâ perspectives such as that of Joseph Schumpeter, and also by figures influential for the 1960s New Left such as C. Wright Mills.[30] The RCP, along with other tendencies of post-New Left politics preoccupied by problems of inequality and hierarchy, such as neo-anarchism, suspects intellectuals of containing the germ for reproducing capitalism through inequality. Likewise, the RCP remains confused about the supposed problem of a âEuro-â or âWesternâ-centric perspective on âworld revolution.â In this sense, the RCP remains trapped by the preoccupations of 1960s-era New Left Maoism in which they originated, despite their attempts to recover the critical purchase of the earlier revolutionary politics of Marx and Lenin. Despite their intended critical approach to this history, they fail to consider how Maoism may have represented a retreat rather than an advance from such revolutionary Marxism. For, as Lenin recognized, the best of Marxist revolutionary politics was not opposed to but rather necessarily stood within the tradition of Rousseau and the radical bourgeois intellectual âJacobinâ legacy of the 18th century, while attempting to transcend it.[31] Like it or not, and either for ill or for good, we remain âlocked in the bourgeois world,â within whose conditions we must try to make any possible revolution. | §
Originally published in The Platypus Review #26 (August 2010).
* Correction: It should not be assumed that writers for Demarcations are members of the RCP.
5. See âAn Open Letter from Raymond Lotta to Tony Judt and the NYU Community on the Responsibility of Intellectuals to the Truth, Including and Especially the Truth about Communism,â in Revolution #180 (October 25, 2009), available online at <http://revcom.us/a/180/Lotta_Open_Letter-en.html>, in which Lotta states that,
Yes, revolutionary power must be held on to: a new state power and the overall leadership of a vanguard party are indispensable. But leadership must be exercised in ways that are, in certain important and crucial respects, different from how this was understood and practiced in the past. This [RCPâs] new synthesis recognizes the indispensable role of intellectual ferment and dissent in socialist society.
7. See Louis Althusser, âContradiction and Overdeterminationâ (1962), New Left Review I/41 (JanuaryâFebruary 1967), 15â35. Also in For Marx (1965), trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1977), 87â116.
8. See, for instance, Michel Foucault, âNietzsche, Genealogy, Historyâ (1971), in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews, ed. D. F. Bouchard (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), 139â164, available online at <http://www.scribd.com/doc/4475734/foucault-nietzsche-genealogy-history>, in which Foucault ignored that Nietzscheâs famous On the Genealogy of Morals (1887) was âa polemicâ against any such âgenealogy,â and so turned Nietzsche, in keeping with Foucaultâs own intent, from a philosopher of freedom into freedomâs âdeconstructionistâ:
In this sense, genealogy returns to the⌠history that Nietzsche recognized in [his 1874 essay âOn the Use and Abuse of History for Lifeâ]âŚ. [But] the critique of the injustices of the past by a truth held by men in the present becomes the destruction of the man who maintains knowledge by the injustice proper to the will to knowledge. (164)
9. See Alain Badiou, Being and Event, trans. Oliver Feltham (New York: Continuum, 2007).
10. See the interview with Badiou by Filippo del Luchesse and Jason Smith, conducted in Los Angeles February 7, 2007, â âWe Need a Popular Disciplineâ: Contemporary Politics and the Crisis of the Negative,â Critical Inquiry 34, no. 4 (Summer 2008), 645â659.
11. See Richard Wolin, The Wind from the East: French Intellectuals, the Cultural Revolution, and the Legacy of the 1960s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).
12. See Peter Hallwardâs essay on Badiouâs Logiques des Mondes (Logics of Worlds), âOrder and Event,â New Left Review 53 (SeptemberâOctober 2008).
13. As James Miller, author of The Passion of Michel Foucault (2000), put it in his 1992 introduction to Rousseauâs Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1992),
The principle of freedom and its corollary, âperfectibilityâ⌠suggest that the possibilities for being human are both multiple and, literally, endlessâŚ. Contemporaries like Kant well understood the novelty and radical implications of Rousseauâs new principle of freedom [and] appreciated his unusual stress on history as the site where the true nature of our species is simultaneously realized and perverted, revealed and distorted. A new way of thinking about the human condition had appearedâŚ. As Hegel put it, âThe principle of freedom dawned on the world in Rousseau, and gave infinite strength to man, who thus apprehended himself as infinite.â (xv)
14. Quoted by Rosa Luxemburg in Organizational Questions of Russian Social Democracy (1904), available in English translation as Leninism or Marxism? in The Russian Revolution and Leninism or Marxism? (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961), available online at <http://www.marxistsfr.org/archive/luxemburg/1904/questions-rsd/ch01.htm>. Luxemburgâs pamphlet was a critique of Lenin, One Step Forward, Two Steps Back: The Crisis in our Party (1904), available online at <http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1904/onestep/q.htm>
15. Marx, âOn The Jewish Question,â in Tucker, ed., Marx-Engels Reader, 46.
17. Max Horkheimer, âThe Authoritarian Stateâ (1940), in The Essential Frankfurt School Reader, Andrew Arato and Eike Gebhardt, eds. (New York: Continuum, 2005), 95.
18. There is an important affinity here with the anarchism of Noam Chomsky and Michael Albert, who consider Marxism to be an ideology of the aspirations to social domination by the âcoordinator classâ of intellectuals, which is how they understand the results of, e.g., the Russian and Chinese Revolutions. In this view, Marxism is the means by which the intellectuals harness the class struggle of the workers for other, non-emancipatory ends. Their understanding of the âparty-stateâ is the regime of the coordinator class.
19. The first Five-Year Plan in the USSR saw the accelerated collectivization of agriculture, in which the Communists unleashed âclass struggleâ in the countryside, with great popular participation. This coincided with the Communist Internationalâs policy of refusing any political alliances with reformists, whom they dubbed âsocial fascists,â during this period, which they considered the advent of revolution, following the Great Crash. Such extremism caused, not only mass starvation and brutalization of life in the USSR â whose failures to âbuild socialismâ were blamed on âTrotskyite wreckers,â leading to the Purge Trials in the mid- to late 1930s â but also the eventual victory of the Nazis in Germany. Just as the Purge Trials in the USSR were in response to failures of the Five-Year Plans, the Cultural Revolution in China was a response to the failure of the Great Leap Forward.
As a part of [the process of Stalinization], certain theoretical distortions of Marxism play an important part. Above all, Marxism is twisted into an economic determinism. The dialectic is abstracted from history and reimposed on social development as a series of fixed stages. Instead of the rich variety and conflict of human history we have the natural series of slavery, feudalism, capitalism and socialism through which all societies passâŚ. An apparent touch of flexibility is given to this schematic picture by the doctrine that different countries will find their âownâ roads to Socialism, learning from the USSR but adapting to their particular national characteristics. This is of course a mechanical caricature of historical materialism. The connection between the struggles of the working class for Socialism in, say, Britain, Russia and Vietnam, is not at all in the greater or lesser degree of similarity of social structure of those countries, but in the organic interdependence of their struggles. Capitalism is an international phenomenon, and the working class is an international force.
25. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France [1790], J. C. D. Clark, ed. (Standford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 239â240. Also available online at <http://www.constitution.org/eb/rev_fran.htm>.
26. See âEuropocentric World Revolution,â in Tucker, ed., Marx-Engels Reader, 676. The selection in Tucker, which omits the first sentence, is from a letter from Marx to Engels of October 8, 1858, available online at <http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1858/letters/58_10_08.htm>.
28. For instance, even many avowed âTrotskyistsâ were fascinated and inspired by the GPCR. See, for example, Gerry Healy and David Northâs International Committee of the Fourth Internationalâs British journal Newsline of January 21, 1967, where an article by Michael Banda stated that âthe best elements led by Mao and Lin Piao have been forced to go outside the framework of the Party and call on the youth and the working class to intervene [in this] anti-bureaucratic [fight].â See David North, The Heritage We Defend: A Contribution to the History of the Fourth International (Detroit: Labor Publications, 1988), 424. North, who became critical of Bandaâs positive perspective on Mao in the Cultural Revolution, is currently the leader of the international tendency of which the Socialist Equality Party is the U.S. section.
30. See C. Wright Mills, âLetter to the New Left,â New Left Review I/5 (SeptemberâOctober 1960), 18â23.
31. Georg LukĂĄcs addressed such transcendence in his eulogy, âLenin â Theoretician of Practiceâ (1924), available online at <http://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/xxxx/lenin.htm>. It is also included as part of the âPostcript 1967,â in LukĂĄcs, Lenin: A Study on the Unity of His Thought, trans. Nicholas Jacobs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970), in which LukĂĄcs described Lenin as follows:
In the chain of democratic revolutions in modern times two types of leaders, poles apart, made their appearance, embodied by men such as Danton and Robespierre, in both reality and literatureâŚ.
Lenin is the first representative of an entirely new type, a tertium datur, as opposed to the two extremes. (93)
But Marx was also a representative of this new type of revolutionary intellectual.
AT THE LEFT FORUM 2010, held at Pace University in New York City in March, Cindy Milstein, director of the Institute for Anarchist Studies, spoke at a panel discussion on anarchism and Marxism, chaired by Andrej Grubacic, with fellow panelists Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz and Andrew Curley. The topic of Milsteinâs talk was the prospect for the âsynthesis of anarchism and Marxismâ today.[1] The relation between anarchism and Marxism is a long-standing and vexing problem, for their developments have been inextricably intertwined.
Milstein began her talk by remarking on the sea-change that had occurred over the course of the last â10â20 years,â in which the âdefault pole on the Leftâ had gone from âauthoritarian to libertarian,â so that now what she called âauthoritarian perspectivesâ had to take seriously and respond to libertarian ones, rather than the reverse, which had been the case previously. Authoritarian Marxists now were on the defensive and had to answer to libertarian anarchists.[2] Milstein commented on her chagrin when she realized that a speaker she found favorable at a recent forum was in fact from the ISO (International Socialist Organization), because the speaker had âsounded like an anarchist.â For Milstein, this was important because it meant that, unlike in the past, the Left could now potentially proceed along essentially âlibertarianâ lines.
Milstein offered two opposed ways in which the potential synthesis of anarchism and Marxism has proceeded to date, both of which she critiqued and wanted to surpass. One was what she called the prevalent âanarchistic activismâ today that found expression, for example, in the Invisible Committeeâs 2005 pamphlet The Coming Insurrection and in the rash of campus occupations at the height of the recent financial crisis. While Milstein praised aspects of this contemporary expression of a certain anarchistic impulse, she expressed concern that it also replicated âthe worst aspects of Marxism, its clandestine organizing and vanguardism.â Milstein found a complementary problem with the Marxist Leftâs attempts (e.g., by the ISO, et al.) to âsound anarchistâ in the present circumstances, for she thought that they did so dishonestly, in order to recruit new members to Marxism. The way Milstein posed these problems already says a great deal about her sympathies and actual purpose in posing the question of a potential synthesis of anarchism and Marxism. For, in her view, whereas the anarchistic Left of the Invisible Committee and campus activists makes an honest mistake, the Marxists have more nefarious motives.[3] Milsteinâs critique of the contemporary anarchistic politics expressed by the Invisible Committeeâs manifesto and associated ethic of âoccupy everythingâ was that, in its extreme emphasis on âautonomy,â it is subject to what she called âindividualist nihilism,â and so lost sight of the âcollective.â
Milstein sought to reclaim the moniker of the âLeftâ exclusively for a revolutionary politics that does not include social democratic or liberal âreformistâ political tendencies. (She made a special point, however, of saying that this did not mean excluding the history of âclassical liberalism,â of Thomas Paine, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and others, which she still found relevant.) Her point was to raise the question of how it might be possible to achieve a non-authoritarian or âlibertarianâ version of âsocialism,â or anti-capitalism informed by Marxism. Milstein identified the problem, common to both Marxism and present-day forms of anarchism, as the failure to properly prefigure an emancipated society of âlibertarian socialismâ in revolutionary politics. Marxism, on this view, retains a crucial role to play. Milstein asserted that anti-capitalism was the sine qua non of any purported revolutionary politics. According to Milstein, what was missing from contemporary anarchism, but which Marxism potentially provided, was the âsocialist,â or revolutionary anti-capitalist dimension that could be found in Marxâs critical theoretical analysis of capitalism in Capital. To Milstein, this was the key basis for any possible rapprochement of anarchism and Marxism.
It is therefore necessary to address the different conceptions of capitalism, and thus anti-capitalism, that might lie behind anarchism and Marxism, in order to see if and how they could participate in a common âlibertarian socialistâ anti-capitalist politics, moving forward.
Historically, anarchists have complained of the split in the First International Workingmenâs Association, in which the Marxists predominated and expelled the anarchists. The history of the subsequent Second or Socialist International, which excluded the anarchists, was peppered with anarchist protest against their marginalization in this period of tremendous growth in the revolutionary socialist workersâ movement.[4] The crisis in the Second International that took place in the context of the First World War (1914â18) saw many former anarchists joining the radicals Lenin, Luxemburg and Trotsky in forming the Third International at the time of the Russian, German, Hungarian and Italian working class revolutions of 1917â19. (For instance, the preeminent American Trotskyist James P. Cannon had, prior to the Bolshevik Revolution, been an anarchist militant in the Industrial Workers of the World.)[5] To be sure, there were many anarchists who remained inimical to, sought to compete politically with, and even fought militarily against Marxism throughout this later period (as in the case of the Russian Civil War), but the splits and realignments among anarchists and Marxists at that time have been a bone of contention in the history of revolutionary socialism ever since then. These two moments, of the First and Third Internationals, are joined by the further trauma of the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s, in which Marxists again fought anarchists.
So how does this âancient historyâ appear in the present? Milstein is content to continue a long tradition among anarchists and âleftâ or libertarian communists and socialists, in which anarchism is opposed to Marxism along the lines of libertarian versus authoritarian politics. But is this indeed the essential, crucial difference between anarchism and Marxism?
Although Milstein approached the question of a present-day synthesis of anarchism and Marxism in an apparently open way, her perspective was still that of a rather dogmatic anarchism, adhering to principles rather than historical perspectives. What Milstein offered was the possibility, not of a true synthesis, but rather of re-assimilating Marxism back into its pre- and non-Marxian or âsocialistâ historical background.
Two figures of historical anarchism not mentioned by Milstein in her talk, but who can be regarded in terms of the emergence and further development of Marxâs own perspectives on capitalism and socialism, are, respectively, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809â65) and Mikhail Bakunin (1814â76). Marxâs thought responded in its initial stages to the formulation of socialism by Proudhon, who was perhaps the most influential socialist at the time of Marxâs youth. Bakunin, on the other hand, started out as an admirer of Marxâs work, completing the first Russian translation the Communist Manifesto while also attempting to undertake a translation of Capital (the latter project was abandoned unfinished).
One figure Milstein did mention, Murray Bookchin (1921â2006), who taught her anarchism, was a famous critical interlocutor with Marxism, writing the New Left pamphlet Listen, Marxist! (1969). Bookchin was himself a former Marxist, first as a mainstream Third International Communist, later a Trotskyist, before ultimately turning to anarchism out of disenchantment with Marxism. More precisely, it was disenchantment with the practice of Marxist politics that motivated Bookchinâs turn to anarchism. Like her mentor, Milsteinâs approach appears to be motivated by a Marxist anti-capitalism in theory and a libertarian anarchist politics in practice. But how does this relate to the actual historical differences between anarchism and Marxism, in both theory and practice?
Marxâs critique of capital was formulated and emerged strongly out of his critical engagement with Proudhonâs âanarchistâ socialism. Proudhon could be considered the first âlibertarian socialist.â Proudhon in fact invented the term âanarchism.â He also famously coined the phrase âproperty is theft.â Proudhon, like Marx, engaged and was influenced by not only British political economy and French socialism, but also Hegelian philosophy. Proudhon admitted to having only âthree masters: the Bible, Adam Smith, and Hegel.â Marxâs personal relationship with Proudhon was broken by Marxâs critique of Proudhonâs 1847 book, System of Economical Contradictions: or, The Philosophy of Poverty. Marxâs book-length critique was titled, in his typically incisive style of dialectical reversal, The Poverty of Philosophy. It is significant that Marx worked towards a critique of Proudhonian socialism at the same time as he was beginning to elaborate a critique of the categories of political economy, through the case of Proudhonâs 1840 book What is Property?, in the unpublished 1844 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts.
By addressing Proudhonâs opposition to capital as symptomatic, and trying to get at the shared presuppositions of both capitalist society and its discontents, as expressed by Proudhon, Marx attempted to grasp the historical essence of capital more fundamentally, and the possibility of capital being reproduced in and through the forms of discontent it generated. This meant taking a very historically specific view of capital that could regard how the prevailing forms of modern society and its characteristic forms of self-understanding in practice, and their discontents, in political ideology, shared a common historical moment in capital. Proudhonâs thought, Marx argued, was not simply mistaken, but, as an acute symptom of capital, necessitated a critical understanding of what Proudhon was trying to grasp and struggle through. Marxâs âcritique of political economy,â and attempt to âget at the rootâ of capital in âhumanity itself,â as a historical phenomenon, can thus be said to have begun with his critique of Proudhon.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and his children (1853), painting by Gustave Courbet.
For Marx, Proudhon offered not the overcoming, but rather the purest expression of the commodity form in capital, in the call to âabolish private property.â The unintended effect of the abolition of property would, according to Marx, actually render society itself into one great âuniversal capitalistâ over its members. For Marx understood âcapitalâ as the contradiction of modern society with itself.[6] Just as each member of capitalist society regarded himself as his own property, a commodity to be bought and sold, so society regarded itself as capital. As Marx put it, in the 1844 Manuscripts,
Karl Marx in 1839.
Communism is the position as the negation of the negation [of humanity in capital], and is hence the actual phase necessary for the next stage of historical development in the process of human emancipation and rehabilitation. Communism is the necessary form and the dynamic principle of the immediate future, but communism as such is not the goal of human development, the form of human society.[7]
This is what Proudhon, according to Marx, did not recognize about âsocialism.â
It is precisely such historical specification of the problems of capital and its discontents, and of any purported attempts to get beyond capital, that distinguishes Marxâs approach from that of anarchism and non-Marxian socialism. In his critique of capital and its discontents, Marx did not pose any principles against others, abstractly, but rather tried to understand the actual basis for the principles of (anti)capitalism from within.
This relates to Marxâs later dispute with his erstwhile admirer Bakunin. Bakunin was most opposed to what he believed to be Marxâs and Marxâs followersâ embrace of the âstateâ in their concept of political revolution leading to socialism. Where Bakunin, in characteristic anarchist manner, claimed to be opposed to the state per se, Marx and his best followers â such as that great demon for anarchists, Lenin,[8] in The State and Revolution (1917) â sought to grasp the necessity of the state as a function of capital, seeking to attack the conditions of possibility of the need for something like state authority in capital itself. Departing from regarding the state as an invidious cause of (political) unfreedom, Marx and the best Marxists sought to find out how the state, in its modern, capitalist, pathological, and self-contradictory form, was actually an effect of capital. The difference between Marxism and anarchism is in the understanding of the modern capitalist state as a historically specific phenomenon, a symptom, as opposed to a transhistorical evil.
Milsteinâs mentor Bookchin provides a good example of this kind of problem in anarchism with respect to historical specificity in opposition to capitalism. Opposed to the individualistic âegoismâ of Proudhonian anarchism and of others such as Max Stirner,[9] Bookchin sought to find an adequate form of social life that in principle could do away with any pernicious authority. Bookchin found this in the idea, taken from Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin (1842â1921), of local communitarian âmutualism,â as opposed to the tyranny of the capitalist state. For Bookchin, the anarchist opposition to capital comes down to a matter of the most anthropologically appropriate principle of society. (It is notable that Noam Chomsky offers a similar anarchist perspective on human nature as inherently socialist.)
Milsteinâs diagnosis and prescription for what ails todayâs Left is concerned with its supposed lack of, or otherwise bad principles for, proper political organizing, in terms of both an adequate practice of anti-capitalist revolutionary politics and the emancipated society of âlibertarian socialismâ towards which it strives.
The eminently practical political issue of âhow to get there from hereâ involves an understanding and judgment of not only the âhowâ and the âthere,â but also the âhereâ from which one imagines one is proceeding. The question is whether we live in a society that suffers from bad principles of organization, extreme hierarchy, and distantly centralized authority, or from a deeper and more obscure problem of social life in modern capitalism that makes hierarchy and centralization both possible and indeed necessary. Where Marx and a Marxian approach begin is with an examination of what anarchism only presupposes and treats a priori as the highest principle of proper human social life. Marxists seek to understand where the impulse towards âlibertarian socialismâ originates historically. Marxists consider âsocialismâ to be the historical product and not simply the antithesis of capitalism. Marxists ask, what necessity must be overcome in order to get beyond capital? For socialism would be not simply the negation, but also the completion of capitalism. Marx nonetheless endorsed it as such. This was the heart of Marxâs âdialecticalâ approach to capital.
By contrast, for Milstein, following Bookchin, socialism differs fundamentally in principle from capitalism. The problem with Marx and historical materialism was that it remained too subject to the exigencies of capitalism in the 19th to early 20th century era of industrialization. Similarly, the problem with the historical anarchism of Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin was that it had not yet adequately formulated the proper political principles for the relations of the individual in society. Bookchin thought that the possibility for this had been achieved in the late 20th century, in what he called âpost-scarcity anarchism,â which would allow for a return to the social principles of the traditional human communities that had been destroyed by capitalism and the hierarchical civilizational forms that preceded it.[10] Even though Bookchin thought that Marxâs fundamental political perspective of proletarian socialism had been historically superseded, he nevertheless found support for his approach in Marxâs late ethnographic notebooks.[11]
On the contrary, an approach properly following Marx would try to understand and push further the aspiration towards a socialist society that comes historically as a result of and from within capital itself. Rather than taking oneâs own supposed âanti-capitalismâ simply as given, a Marxian approach seeks â as Marx put it in a famous 1843 letter to Arnold Ruge calling for the âruthless criticism of everything existing,â including first and foremost the Left[12] â to âshow the world why it is struggling, and [that] consciousness of this is a thing it must acquire whether it wishes or not.â[13]
For Milstein, the problems afflicting todayâs âanti-capitalist movementâ can be established and overcome in principle a priori. According to Milstein, the Left must only give up its âindividualistic nihilismâ and âconspiratorial vanguardismâ in organized politics in order to achieve socialism. This means Marxists must give up their bad ideas and forms of organization and become anarchists, or âlibertarian socialists,â if they are to serve rather than hinder the revolution against capital.
But, as the young, searching 25 year-old political radical Marx wrote (in his 1843 letter to Ruge),
In fact, the internal obstacles seem almost greater than external difficulties. For . . . the question âwhere to?â is a rich source of confusion . . . among the reformers, but also every individual must admit to himself that he has no precise idea about what ought to happen. . . . [However] we do not anticipate the world with our dogmas but instead attempt to discover the new world through the critique of the old. I am therefore not in favor of our hoisting a dogmatic banner. Quite the reverse. We must try to help the dogmatists to clarify their ideas. In particular, communism is a dogmatic abstraction and . . . only a particular manifestation of the humanistic principle and is infected by its opposite, private property. The abolition of private property is therefore by no means identical with communism and communism has seen other socialist theories, such as those of . . . Proudhon, rising up in opposition to it, not fortuitously but necessarily, because it is only a particular, one-sided realization of the principle of socialism. And by the same token, the whole principle of socialism is concerned only with one side, namely the reality of the true existence of man. . . . This does not mean that we shall confront the world with new doctrinaire principles and proclaim: Here is the truth, on your knees before it! It means that we shall develop for the world new principles from the existing principles of the world. . . . Our programme must be: the reform of consciousness not through dogmas but by analyzing . . . consciousness obscure to itself. . . . It will then become plain that the world has long since dreamed of something of which it needs only to become conscious for it to possess it in reality.[14]
Marx counterposed his own unique perspective sharply against that of other âsocialists,â whom he found to be unwittingly bound up in the categories of capital against which they raged. This has remained the case for virtually all âanti-capitalistsâ up to the present. Marx grasped this problem of anti-capitalism at the dawn of the epoch of industrial capital that arose with the disintegration of traditional society, but to whose unprecedented and historically specific social and political problems we continue to be subject today.
Marx departed from anarchism and other forms of symptomatic âsocialismâ with reason, and this reason must not be forgotten. Marxâs task remains unfinished. Only this âclarificationâ of âconsciousness obscure to itselfâ that Marx called for can fulfill the long âdreamâ of anarchism, which otherwise will remain denied in reality. | §
Originally published in The Platypus Review #25 (July 2010).
2. It is unclear by her â10â20 yearâ periodization whether Milstein meant this negatively, with the collapse of Stalinism or âauthoritarian/state socialismâ beginning in 1989, or positively, with the supposedly resurgent Left of the âanti/alter-globalizationâ movement exemplified by the 1999 protests against the World Trade Organization in Seattle and the World Social Forum starting in 2001 at Porto Alegre, Brazil. Milstein was probably referencing both.
3. Ever since the Marx-Bakunin split in the International Workingmenâs Association or First International, anarchists have characterized Marxists as authoritarians hijacking the revolutionary movement.
4. See James Joll, The Second International 1889â1914 (New York: Praeger, 1956).
5. See Bryan D. Palmer, James P. Cannon and the Origins of the American Revolutionary Left 1890â1928 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2007).
6. For example, Proudhon advocated replacing money with labor-time credits and so did not recognize, as Marx noted early on and elaborated in detail later in Capital, how, after the Industrial Revolution and the introduction of machine production, labor-time undermined itself as a measure of social value.
8. Lenin wrote, in âLeft-Wingâ Communism â An Infantile Disorder (1920) that,
[D]riven to frenzy by the horrors of capitalism . . . anarchism is characteristic of all capitalist countries. The instability of such revolutionism, its barrenness, and its tendency to turn rapidly into submission, apathy, phantasms, and even a frenzied infatuation with one bourgeois fad or another â all this is common knowledge. . . .
Anarchism was not infrequently a kind of penalty for the opportunist sins of the working-class movement. The two monstrosities complemented each other. (Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Lenin Anthology (New York: Norton, 1975), 559â560.)
9. See Max Stirner, The Ego and its Own (London: Rebel Press, 1993). Originally published 1845. Sometimes translated as The Individual and his Property.
10. See Bookchin, Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1970); âBeyond Neo-Marxism,â Telos 36 (1979); and Toward an Ecological Society (1980).
11. These writings by Marx are also the subject of a recent book by the Marxist-Humanist Kevin B. Anderson, Marx at the Margins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010).
12. Elsewhere, Marx wrote, âOur task is that of ruthless criticism, and much more against ostensible friends than against open enemies; and in maintaining this our position we gladly forego cheap democratic popularity.â (âGottfried Kinkel,â in Neue Rheinische Zeitung: Politisch-Ăkonomische Revue No. 4, 1850. Â Available online at <www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1850/04/kinkel.htm>).
